Professor  J«  Henry  Senger 


J.  HENRY  SENGER 


OUR  WORKSHOP; 


A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  TO  THE  AMATEUR 


THE  ART  OF  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


PROFUSELY  IL  RATED. 


NEW  YOKr. 
THOMAS  O'KANE,  130  NASSAU  STREET. 

1S73. 


IN  MEMOR1AM 

£> 


erl  •£>  SS*>/  ^'    Ve/w*^<-\  ^^vsOv 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 1 

I.    THE  BENCH      6 

II.     How  TO  USE  THE  TOOLS 13 

III.  REMARKS    ON     THE    SEASONING   AND 

CHOICE  OF  THE  WOODS        53 

IV.  VARIOUS  METHODS  OF  JOINING  TIMBER     66 
V.     SIMPLE  WORKS  IN  WOOD        75 

VI.     GROOVING  PLANES,  ETC 129 

VII.     MORTISING  AND  TENONING       147 

VIII.     DOVETAILING     165 

IX.     VENEERING        180 

X.  VARNISHING  AND  FRENCH  POLISHING  187 


OUR     WORKSHOP. 


CARPENTRY   AND    JOINERY. 

JE  are  sorry  to  be  obliged  to  admit, 
that  to  enter  into  a  scientific  investi- 
gation of  the  mechanical  principles  on 
which  the  art  of  Carpentry  depends, 
would  be  worse  than  useless.  By  so  doing,  we 
should  only  be  occupying  valuable  space,  with- 
out imparting  instruction,  or  affording  pleasure 
to  many  of  our  readers. 

We  should  fail  in  the  first,  simply  because 
amateurs  would  not  peruse  such  unpalatable 
matter ;  for  so  it  would  be  considered  by  the 
every-day  reader  of  light  literature.  The  latter, 
or  pleasure- seeker,  would  ask  why  we  did  not 
tell  him  how  to  make  some  ornamental  or  useful 
article,  instead  of  delivering  a  dry  lecture  on 
the  composition  and  resolution  of  forces,  the 
strengths  of  different  forms  of  beams,  and  many 
other  matters  which  are  all-important  to  the 


practical  carpenter.  In  truth,  there  always  has 
been,  and  we  fear  there  always  must  be,  a  very 
wide  distinction  between  the  practical  and  the 
amateur  mechanic. 

While  the  former  is  dependent  on  the  correct 
scientific  principles  of  his  art,  to  enable  him  to 
guard  against  the  most  disastrous  consequences, 
the  latter  is  quite  satisfied  with  a  mere  super- 
ficial knowledge,  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
carry  trifling  matters  to  a  successful  issue. 

Carpentry  is  one  of  the  most  "interesting  and 
useful  branches  of  mechanical  art.  It  is  also  a 
cleanly  and  healthy  employment.  That  carpentry 
is  popular  amongst  boys,  no  one  will  deny. 
Who  ever  saw  a  youngster  who  did  not  delight 
in  the  use  of  his  pocket-knife,  if  no  more 
convenient  tool  were  at  hand,  to  display  his 
constructive,  and  we  fear  but  too  often  his 
destructive,  capabilities  ?  We  hope  that  the  advice 
we  can  give  and  the  knowledge  we  shall  endeavour 
to  impart  to  our  apprentices,  in  "  Every  Boy's 
Workshop,"  will  reclaim  all  mischievous  fellows, 
and  encourage  all  those  who  are  of  an  ingenious 
and  constructive  turn  of  mind.  Just  reflect,  if  it 
be  only  for  a  moment,  how  gratifying  it  would  be 
to  have  it  said, — Cf  Don't  send  for  Chips,  the 
carpenter  :  my  son  can  do  the  job  quite  as  well ; 
he  is  a  capital  joiner."  Besides  this,  there  are 
so  many  useful  articles  you  would  be  able  to 


Carpentry  anil  Joinery.  3 

make  for  the  cost  price  of  the  material,  and 
allowing  a  slight  percentage  on  the  original 
price  of  your  tools. 

Good  tools  are  necessarily  expensive,  never- 
theless our  apprentices  must  use  none  but  the 
best ;  for  in  the  end  they  are  the  cheapest. 
Always  remember  the  old  and  true  saying,  "  A. 
good  workman  is  known  by  his  tools. "  A  good 
workman  may  do  a  tolerable  job  with  indifferent 
tools,  but  a  beginner  should  never  attempt  to 
use  any  but  first-class  implements,  or  he  will 
never  become  a  first-class  craftsman.  If  you  use 
bad  tools,  and  try  to  cast  the  blame  of  bad  work 
on  them,  recollect  that  "  A  bad  workman  always 
complains  of  his  tools.-"  A  really  clever 
mechanic  cherishes  his  reputation  far  too  highly 
to  allow  his  tools  to  lapse  into  an  inefficient 
condition ;  therefore,  next  to  his  character,  the 
honest  workman  prides  himself,  and  justly  so,  on 
the  superior  quality  of  his  tools. 

We  are  wejl  aware  that  our  apprentices  cannot 
all  afford  to  purchase  good  tools,  to  the  extent 
they  will  require  them,  at  a  moment's  notice ; 
and,  indeed,  it  is  questionable  whether  it  would 
be  advantageous  for  them  to  do  so  at  first 
under  any  circumstances,  as  increased  "confidence 
will  be  acquired  by  making  a  few  tools  serve  for 
all  purposes  to  which  they  can  effectively  be 
applied. 

B  2 


4  Our  Workshop. 

Many  people  imagine  that  when  they  have  not 
a  good  set  of  carpenter's  tools,  the  best  plan  is 
to  purchase  a  box  of  so-called  "  Tools."  Beware 
how  you  do  this.  Never  buy  a  box  of  tools.  A 
joiner's  tool-chest,  if  bought  of  a  respectable 
manufacturer,  may  be  all  right ;  but  we  do  not 
advocate  the  practice. 

Purchase,  or,  if  you  like,  make  a  tool-chest, 
and  furnish  it  with  the  best  tools,  carefully 
selected  from  the  manufacturer's  stock.  A 
young  carpenter  will  do  well  to  get  some  friend 
who  has  the  requisite  experience  to  examine  the 
tools  before  purchasing.  We  will  quote  the 
average  prices  of  the  best  tools  required  for  "  Our 
Workshop ;"  our  apprentices  will  then  be  able 
to  judge  of  the  qualities  and  prices  offered  by 
the  makers  with  whom  they  may  be  obliged  to 
deal. 

Some  little  misconception  exists  respecting 
the  terms,  carpenter,  joiner,  and  cabinet-maker, 
Strictly  speaking,  a  carpenter  is  the  artisan 
whose  duty  it  is  to  lay  down  floors,  build  roofs, 
and  make  other  substantial  frame-work,  of  which 
many  examples  may  be  found  in  the  building 
trade.  A  thorough  carpenter  is  a  very  clever 
fellow  ;  in  fact,  he  is  a  scientific  man, — an 
engineer  in  his  way.  Many  of  the  most  eminent 
builders  were  carpenters.  Half  the  men  who 
style  themselves  carpenters  and  joiners  are  really 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  5 

only  the  latter.  A  joiner  begins  where  the  car- 
penter leaves  off.  As  soon  as  the  roof,  flooring, 
and  other  heavy  work  is  finished,  the  joiner 
comes  into  the  house,  and  fits  the  window-frames 
and  sashes,  doors,  cupboards,  shelves,  &c.,  &c., 
which  are  essential  to  make  a  house  habitable. 
All  the  fixtures  being  completed,  our  friends,  the 
carpenter  and  joiner,  leave  the  premises  to  the 
cabinet-maker,  who  supplies  the  furniture,  &c., 
without  which  we  should  not  feel  much  tempted 
to  make  a  prolonged  stay  in  the  house,  however 
cleverly  his  able  predecessors  had  accomplished 
their  allotted  tasks. 


Our  Workshop. 


• 
CHAPTER     I. 

THE    BENCH. 

is  our  intention  to  notice  many  things,, 
however  trivial,  that  may  in  any  way  serve 
to  enlighten  our  readers  respecting  the 
joiner's  art.  Many  of  the  most  extensive 
works  are  produced  by  the  proper  combination 
of  several  small,  and,  when  taken  singly, 
apparently  unimportant  devices. 

Every  one  who  has  made  an  attempt  at 
carpentry  is  aware  that  the  object  on  which  we 
wish  to  use  our  tools  must  be  firmly  fixed,  in 
such  a  manner  that  we  may  apply  our  tools  with 
convenience  to  the  part  to  be  wrought.  The 
bench,  of  which  fig.  1  is  a  representation,, 
consists  of  a  strong  rough  frame,  surmounted  by 
a  stout  top,  formed  of  2-inch  board.  The  height 
of  the  bench  should  be  about  2  feet  6  inches,  but 
this  must  be  regulated  to  some  extent  by  the 
stature  of  the  workman.  The  best  way  to  deter- 
mine the  proper  height  for  your  bench  is  to  place 
a  plane  on  an  ordinary  table,  and  grasp  it  as 
though  in  the  act  of  planing..  If  the. back  be 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  7 

straight,  and  the  right  elbow  a  little  bent,  the 
height  is  correct.     You  should  feel  that  you  have 


entire  command  over  the  tool,  which  you  cannot 
possess  if  the  bench  be  much  too  high. 


8  Our  Workshop. 

As  we  suppose  that  our  shop  is  only  about  to 
be  opened,  it  will  probably  be  better  to  purchase 
a  second-hand  bench  of  some  carpenter,  which 
may  be  done  for  a  few  shillings.  If  you  can 
afford  to  pay  for  a  new  bench,  do  not  hesitate, 
but  do  so ;  because,  next  to  good  tools,  a  sound, 
steady  bench  is  of  great  importance,  as  you  will 
discover  shortly,  when  we  begin  to  use  the 
plane.  If  the  bench  be  about  5  feet  long,  and 
2  feet  4  inches  wide,  it  will  be  large  enough. 
The  upper  surface  of  the  bench  should  be  smooth 
and  true.  Near  the  left-hand  corner  a  square 
hole,  or  mortise,  is  cut,  into  which  is  fitted  a 
block  of  hard  wood,  S,  called  the  stop.  The  use 
of  the  stop  is  to  check  the  wood  that  is  to  be 
planed,  so  that  it  may  not  be  pushed  forward 
when  the  plane-iron  begins  to  cut.  The  stop  is 
somewhat  longer  than  the  thickness  of  the  top 
of  the  bench,  so  that  it  may  be  driven  up  with 
a  mallet  from  below,  to  suit  the  thickness  of  the 
work  to  be  planed;  it  can  also  be  knocked  down 
to  clear  thin  works,  so  that  the  plane  may  pass 
over  it  without  sticking. 

It  is  frequently  necessary  to  secure  one  piece 
of  wood  temporarily  on  another,  when  using  the 
chisel.  For  this  purpose,  a  peculiarly-shaped 
piece  of  wrought-iron,  li,  termed  a  holdfast,  is 
employed.  The  holdfast  acts  in  a  very  simple 
manner.  The  part  you  see  above  the  bench  is 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  9 

merely  bent  round,  the  end  being  turned  up  into 
a  foot  to  press  on  the  work.  The  lower  part  is  a 
straight  round  bar,  which,  by  being  set  askew  in 
a  hole  made  in  the  top  of  the  bench,  draws  itself 
tighter  the  harder  we  strike  the  head  at  n,  and 
thus  forcibly  presses  down  the  work  to  be  held ; 
if  struck  at  //,  the  work  is  released. 

The  screw-chops,  C,  also  shown  separately  be- 
low, are  of  great  service  for  holding  work  which 
may  require  planing  on  the  edge,  such  as  a  long 
board,  &c.,  and  also  for  many  purposes  we  shall 
notice  hereafter.  The  chops  consist  of  a  face- 
board,  C,  which  should  be  made  of  some  hard 
wood,  that  is  not  liable  to  warp ;  mahogany  is 
very  good.  Common  benches  are  fitted  with 
chops  made  of  pine,  which  is  generally  the  mate- 
rial of  which  the  bench  is  itself  constructed. 
The  face-board  is  made  to  advance  to  the  edge 
of  the  bench,  or  to  recede  therefrom,  by  a  strong 
wooden  screw,  P,  which  works  in  a  wooden  nut, 
fixed  to  the  underside  of  the  bench.  The  face- 
board  is  guided  by  a  square  rail,  r,  which  is 
secured  thereto,  the  other  end  sliding  in  a  suit- 
able mortise,  under  the  bench.  The  screw  is 
moved  by  a  round  wooden  bar,  which  passes 
through  the  head,  P,  the  bar  being  an  easy  fit, 
to  enable  us  to  draw  it  through  the  head  on 
either  side  as  may  be  required  ;  it  is  kept  in  its 
place  by  a  head  at  each  end. 


10  Our  Workshop. 

We  have  given  a  list  of  the  principal  tools,  &c., 
that  you  will  require,  and  also  illustrations  of 
the  more  important  amongst  them.  The  prices 
quoted  will  be  found  to  agree  very  nearly  with 
those  of  the  first  London  houses.  Tools  can  un- 
doubtedly be  bought  for  less  than  half  the  sum 
here  stated,  but  the  quality,  if  they  be  sold  as 
new,  will  be  very  inferior.  A  good  set  of  joiner's 
tools,  if  properly  used  and  taken  care  of,  will  last 
and  be  serviceable  for  two  average  lifetimes. 

All  the  edge-tools  should  be  made  of  the  best 
cast-steel,  otherwise  they  will  not  remain  sharp 
for  even  a  short  time.  Shear-steel  is  very  suit- 
able for  many  purposes  in  which  elasticity  or 
toughness  is  required;  but  it  cannot  be  advan- 
tageously employed  for  edge-tools.  If  the  steel 
be  too  hard,  the  edge  breaks  away;  if  too  soft, 
the  tool  quickly  becomes  blunt,  owing  to  the 
edge  turning  up.  There  are  few  things  more 
annoying  to  a  workman  than  to  be  obliged  to 
sharpen  his  chisels  and  planes  much  more  fre- 
quently than  would  otherwise  be  necessary  if  the 
steel  were  good. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  11 

LIST  OF  TOOLS  REQUIRED  FOR  "OUR  WORKSHOP." 

(Average  Prices.) 

£    s.    el 

Small  hand-saw          ...         ...         ...  040 

Sash  and  tenon-saw    ...         ...         , . .  050 

Table  and  compass-saw          ...         ...  0     1     6 

Axe      0     2     0 

Jack-plane  (double  iron)        ...         ...  056 

Suioothing-plane        ...         ...         ...  040 

Spokeshave     ...         ...         ...         ...  026 

Cutting-gauge             ...         ...         ...  010 

Marking-gauge           ...         ...         ...  010 

Four  firmer-chisels,  J,  %,  f ,  1-in.       ...  036 

Three  mortise-chisels,  J,  J,  f -in.       ...  036 

Three  gouges  ^,  f,  Ij-in.       ...         ...  030 

Gimlets  and  bradawls            ...         ...  010 

Joiner's  hammer         ...         ...         ...  020 

Mallet 0     3     0 

Screwdriver    ...         ...         ...         ...  020 

Brace  (36  black  bits) ...         1100 

Pincers            ...        ' 010 

Compasses       ...         ...         ...         ...  010 

Square 0     3     0 

Bevil 030 

Kule 020 

Grindstone      100 

Oilstone           040 

Oilcan             0     1     0 

Gluepot           026 

£o  12     0 


12  Our  Workshop. 

Depend  upon  it,  there  is  no  policy  more  short- 
sighted than  to  sacrifice  quality  for  cheapness. 
Those  who  are  unable  to  afford  the  stock-in-trade 
we  have  proposed,  must  content  themselves  with 
purchasing  a  tool  occasionally.  A  good  deal  of 
work  may  be  done  with  a  hand-saw,  ten  on- saw, 
jack-plane,  a  firmer-chisel,  one  gouge,  marking- 
gauge,  one  gimlet,  one  bradawl,  screwdriver, 
hammer,  mallet,  square,  rule,  oil-stone,  oil-can, 
and  glue-pot,  costing  about  thirty-six  shillings. 

The  other  tools  may  very  well  be  postponed 
until  your  capital  will  admit  of  the  investment. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  13 


CHAPTER  II. 

HOW     TO     USE     THE     TOOLS. 

CARPENTRY,  like  every  other  important 
art,  demands  much  attentive  practice,  be- 
fore even  a  moderate  degree  of  proficiency 
can  be  acquired.  Any  one  accustomed 
to  mechanical  manipulation  can  tell  whether  a 
man  is  a  skilled  or  an  indifferent  workman,  by 
noticing  the  way  in  which  he  handles  his  tools. 
A  novice  thinks,  when  he  sees  an  expert  carpen- 
ter at  work,  that  it  requires  no  great  skill  to  saw, 
to  plane,  or  to  bore  a  hole ;  and  that  any  one  can 
drive  a  nail  or  put  in  a  screw.  What  we  say  is, 
let  our  tyro  try  his  hand  at  any  of  these  ap- 
parently easy  jobs.  He  will  very  soon  ask  why 
the  saw  won^t  cut  straight,  or  the  plane  make 
the  wood  flat ;  why,  in  boring  the  hole,  the  wood 
always  splits,  the  nails  goes  askew,  and  the  screw 
won't  hold ;  and,  we  may  add,  our  young  friend 
discovers  that  carpentry  is  not  so  soon  mastered 
as  he  thought. 

The  saw  being  the  first  tool  the  carpenter  must 
use  to  reduce  his  materials  to  the  rough  dimen- 


14  Our  Workshop. 

sions,  we  will  consider  it  first.  On  examination 
it  will  be  observed  that  the  steel  or  blade  of  the 
saw  is  thinner  on  the  back  than  on  the  toothed 
edge.  The  object  of  this  reduction  in  the  thick- 
ness is  to  enable  the  saw  to  move  with  greater 
freedom  in  the  kerf,  as  the  saw-cut  is  called.  If 
the  blade  were  of  the  same  substance  from  the 
front  to  the  back  edge,  we  should  be  unable  to 
drive  the  saw  after  it  had  fairly  entered  on  its 
work,  owing  to  the  great  side  friction.  Another 
provision  for  still  further  facilitating  the  move- 
ments of  the  saw  is  called  the  set  of  the  teeth. 
By  this  is  meant  the  alternate  side  inclination  of 
the  teeth.  By  bending  the  teeth  alternately  to 
the  right  and  left,  they  act  more  on  the  sides  of 
the  kerf,  and  make  it  wider  than  the  thickness  of 
the  blade,  which,  being  at  liberty,  can  move  freely. 
Setting  a  saw  is  a  nice  operation,  and  it  requires 
much  practice  to  do  well.  An  amateur  should 
never  attempt  to  set  or  rather  re- set  his  saws,  as 
he  will  in  all  probability  spoil  them.  If  a  saw 
be  set  more  on  one  side  than  on  the  other,  it  will 
generally  go  astray  on  that  side,  and  will  require 
considerable  attention  to  keep  it  to  the  line. 
The  saw,  if  bought  of  a  good  manufacturer,  will 
in  all  probability  work  quite  satisfactorily ;  but  we 
consider  it  necessary  to  point  out  the  difficulties 
which  may  arise,  and  advise  our  pupils  as  to  the 
best  course  to  be  pursued. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


15 


Suppose  we  require  to  make  a  rough  box  or 
any  similar  object,  which  is  formed  by  fastening 
several  boards  together.  The  saw  (fig.  2)  must 
necessarily  be  used  to  reduce  the  wood  to  the 
right  size,,  before  we  can  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced our  task.  The  plank  to  be  sawn  is 
generally  placed  across  two  low  stools  or  trestles 
about  twenty  inches  in  height.  We  must  then 
mark  a  chalk  or  pencil  line  to  indicate  the  path 
of  the  saw.  If  the  plank  be  too  wide  for  our 


Fig.  2. — Hand-saw. 


purpose,  the  saw  must  be  employed  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  grain,  or  in  the  lengthway  of  the 
plank.  The  plank  must  overhang  one  of  the 
trestles  a  few  inches,  and  the  saw,  which  is  to  be 
held  in  the  right  hand,  can  then  be  advantageously 
applied.  You  must  stand  a  little  behind  the 
trestle  which  supports  the  overhanging  end  of 
the  plank,  and  place  your  right  knee  on  the 
plank  to  keep  it  steady.  The  first  incision  should 
be  made  with  the  small  end  of  the  saw,  the 


16  Our  Workshop. 

strokes  being  short  and  quick.  As  the  saw 
advances,  the  stroke  may  be  increased,  until 
almost  the  entire  serrated  edge  comes  into  action. 
The  overhanging  end  of  the  wood  must  be  sup- 
ported by  the  left  hand,  the  fingers  being  below, 
the  thumb  alone  resting  on  the  upper  side.  The 
left  hand  is  also  employed  to  draw  the  plank 
forward  when  the  saw  approaches  the  trestle. 
The  labour  of  sawing  may  be  considerably  di- 
minished by  occasionally  greasing  the  blade  v/ith 
a  tallow  candle  end,  or  the  tallow  may  be  smeared 
on  a  piece  of  leather,  and  so  be  more  conveniently 
applied.  Sawing  with  the  grain  is  called  ripping, 
and  the  tool  employed  for  this  purpose  is  called 
a  rip-saw,  the  teeth  of  which  are  large  and  of  a 
triangular  shape.  When  you  have  ripped  a 
sufficiently  long  piece  of  "stuff"  to  form  the 
four  sides  of  the  box,  supposing  the  plank  to  be 
long  enough,  the  saw  can  be  applied  across  the 
grain  at  right  angles  to  the  first  kerf,  the  plank 
being  held  only  by  the  left  hand  behind  the  new 
kerf.  Just  before  the  second  kerf  meets  the  first, 
the  wood  about  to  be  severed  must  be  supported 
by  the  left  hand,  and  the  saw  must  be  used  gently 
to  avoid  breaking  a  piece  of  the  wood  away 
when  the  kerfs  meet.  If  care  be  not  observed, 
a  large  piece  or  splinter  will  tear  from  either  side, 
and  perhaps  unfit  the  wood  for  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  intended. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  17 

If  the  box  is  only  to  be  made  in  the  "rough/* 
— that  is,  not  planed,  and  simply  nailed  together, 
— you  must  saw  the  stuff  as  straight  as  possible, 
otherwise  it  will  indeed  be  a  rough  job.  If  the 
plane  is  to  be  used,  the  wood  must  be  sawn 
across  for  the  sides  after  it  has  been  planed, 
otherwise  it  will  be  more  difficult  to  make  the 
thickness  uniform. 

Sawing  forms  so  important  a  part  of  the 
carpenter's  work,  that  we  may  surely  be  excused 
if  we  dwell  a  little  longer  on  the  management 
of  this  tool.  Our  readers  will  do  well  if  they 
practise  sawing  as  extensively  as  their  limited* 
opportunities  will  admit. 

If  the  plank  be  thick  and  the  length  to  be 
sawn  considerable,  the  work  should  be  frequently 
turned  over  to  equalize  any  irregularity  that 
may  arise  from  unskilful  guidance  of  the  saw. 
The  work  must  therefore  be  marked  out  on  both 
sides,  care  being  taken  to  make  the  lines  coincide 
with  each  other  exactly,  or  they  will  be  worse 
than  useless. 

While  sawing,  the  eye  must  be  vigilant,  and 
should  appreciate  the  slightest  departure  from 
the  line.  The  eye  must  be  directed  only  so 
much  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  edge  of  the 
blade,  that  the  line  may  be  seen  on  either  side 
on  the  slightest  movement  of  the  head  to  the 
right  or  left.  If  the  eye  be  suffered  to  wander, 
c 


18  Our  Workshop. 

so  that  the  line  is  seen  entirely — say  on  the  right 
— the  hand  will  involuntarily  force  the  saw  in 
that  direction,  and  the  blade  will  pursue  an 
erratic  course.  If  the  saw  has  not  departed 
much  from  its  proper  course,  it  may  be  restored 
to  the  line  by  twisting  the  handle  a  little  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  that  which  the  saw  has 
taken.  We  are  enabled  to  do  this  the  more 
readily  owing  to  the  set  of  the  teeth,  which 
has  made  the  kerf  a  little  wider  than  the  blade, 
and  the  reduction  in  the  thickness  of  the  blade 
towards  the  back  edge  affords  additional  free- 
dom. Care_.,  however,  must  be  observed  in  this 
correctional  or  steering  process,  otherwise  the 
saw  will  be  made  to  err  as  much  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  the  blade  may  be  jammed  fast  in 
the  kerf. 

The  toothed  edge  of  the  saw  should  be  held 
nearly  vertically  in  the  thrust,  or  cutting  strokes. 
If  it  be  allowed  to  become  much  inclined  .to  the 
work,  the  depth  to  be  sawn  is  practically  in- 
creased, and  the  labour  proportionally  aug- 
mented. When  the  wood  is  very  hard  or  thick, 
the  saw  must  be  grasped  with  both  hands  ;  the 
difficulty  of  directing  its  course  is  then,  however, 
much  increased.  Sometimes  the  wood  to  be 
sawn  is  too  short  to  be  conveniently  held  on 
the  trestle.  When  this  is  the  case,  it  must  be 
fixed  either  on  the  bench  or  in  the  screw  chops. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  19 

If  we  required  to  saw  a  short  piece  of  board, 
^bout  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  length,  we  should 
fix  it  in  an  upright  position  in  the  chops,  and 
hold  the  upper  end  of  the  wood  with  the  left 
hand,  and  drive  the  saw  with  the  right.  This  is 
a  favourite  position  with  many  workmen,  who 
prefer  the  erect  to  the  stooping  attitude.  It  is 
of  great  importance  to  become  habituated  to 
certain  defined  positions  when  at  work ;  for  if 
the  body  be  inclined  at  one  time  and  erect  at 
another,  the  character  of  the  work  remaining 
unchanged,  no  accuracy  can  be  expected,  as  the 
action  of  the  tools  is  greatly  influenced  by  the- 
posture  of  the  workman.  If  the  work  be  fixed 
on  the  bench  so  that  the  part  to  be  sawn  over- 
hangs a  few  inches,  the  saw  must  be  held  with 
both  hands,  and  allowed  to  hang  down  in  front 
of  the  operator,  the  toothed  edge  being  from  him 
and  towards  the  work.  As  the  tool  cuts,  the 
carpenter  advances,  still  maintaining  the  saw 
in  its  pendent  position.  Careful  practice  is  the 
only  way  in  which  you  can  attain  skill,  not  only 
in  mechanical  operations,  but  in  everything, 
however  trivial  it  may  be,  that  you  undertake. 

Our  pupils  should  take  every  opportunity  of 
watching  practical  men  at  work,  and  should 
never  suffer  a  silly,  false  pride  to  hinder  them 
from  asking  for  information,  which,  if  properly 
solicited,  will  never  be  withheld.  A  clever, 
c  2 


20  Our  Workshop. 

intelligent  workman  feels  a  proper  pride  in  the 
art  he  professes,  and  is  really  gratified  when  i 
young  fellow  asks  him  to  solve  the  difficulties 
which  all  amateurs  are  certain  to  experience  ir 
their  undertakings. 

For  the  present  we  must  lay  aside  the  saw 
and  examine  the  plane,  which  is  the  tool  b} 
which  the  smooth,  finished  appearance  is  im- 
parted to  all  carpentry  and  joinery  works. 

The  plane  consists  of  a  long,  narrow  piece  o1 


Fig.  3.— Jack-plane. 

hard  wood,  made  as  true   and  smooth  in  every 
direction  as  possible. 

Fig.  3  will  give  you  a  general  idea  of  the 
Jack-plane,  which  is  used  for  reducing  the  rough 
wood  to  a  uniform  surface.  The  iron,  as  the 
cutting  blade  is  called,  is  in  shape  very  similai 


Fig1.  4. — Firmer-chisel. 

to    a    firmer- chisel    (fig.   4).      A  wedge-shaped 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


21 


opening  is  made  through  the  wood  or  stock  of 
the  plane,  in  which  the  iron  is  inserted.  The 
narrow  end  of  the  wedge-shaped  opening  is  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sole  or  stock,  through  which 
the  sharp  edge  of  the  iron  slightly  projects. 

As  it  is  not  only  important,  but  absolutely 
necessary,  that  the  workman  should  understand 
the  construction  of  the  tools  he  uses,  we  must 
request  our  pupils  attentively  to  examine  the 
several  views  of  the  plane  we  are  about  to 
consider. 

Fig.  5  is  a  section  taken  through  the  length 
of  the  stock,  dividing  it  in  the  middle  or  centre 


Fig.  5. 

of  its  width.  The  iron,  a  b,  is  clearly  seen;  also 
the  wedge,  w,  by  which  the  iron  is  firmly  fixed 
in  the  inclined  position.  The  solid  wood  behind 
the  iron,  on  which  it  rests,  is  called  the  bed. 
The  narrow  opening  at  a  is  the  mouth,  and  the 
inclined  wall  at  a  c  is  called  the  wear.  The  angle 
of  the  wear  should  not  be  great,  otherwise  the 


22  Our  Workshop. 

wearing  away  of  the  sole  of  the  plane  will  tend 
to  enlarge  the  mouth  ;  at  the  same  time  the  angle 
must  not  be  too  slight,,  or  the  plane  will  choke ; 
that  is,  the  shavings  will  stick  fast,  and  prevent 
the  tool  working.  The  second  inclined  wall,  c  d,  is 
termedthe/hm^the  angle  of  which  is  unimportant. 
The  mouth  is  generally  about  one-third  of  the 
length  of  the  plane  from  the  front  end,  not  only 


Fig-.  6.— Smoothing.plane. 

in  the  long,  but  also  in  the  smoothing-planes. 
The  dotted  lines,  e  f  (fig.  5),  show  where  the 
stock  would  stop  in  a  smoothing-plane,  in  which 
the  iron  is  similar.  Fig.  6  is  a  general  repre- 
sentation of  a  smoothing-plane.  The  wedge 
for  fixing  the  iron  is  shown  in  two  views  in 
fig.  7. 


i    _. 


Fig.  7. 


The  handle,  or  toat,  t,  by  which  the  plane  is 
driven  forward,  is  simply  in  the  form  of  a  horn, 
as  in  figs.  3  and  5,  for  these  and  panel-planes ; 


Carpentry  and  Joiner  >j.  23 

but  longer  planes  have  handles,  fixed  in  the  same 
relation  to  the  iron,,  but  in  shape  they  much 
resemble  the  handle  of  a  hand-saw. 

Most  of  the  surfacing-planes  are  fitted  with 


Fig.  8. 

"  double  irons. "  The  irons  are  shown  in  section 
to  a  larger  scale  in  fig.  8.  The  lower  iron,  a  a, 
is  the  cutter,  while  the  upper,  or  break-iron,  b  b, 


Fig.  9- 

only  bends  the  shavings  out  of  the  way  of  the 
edge  of  the  iron  proper,  and  directs  them  up  the 
"  wear."  The  end,  b,  of  the  break-iron,  is  formed 
with  a  large  curve,  and  the  edge  which  rests  on 
the  cutter  is  made  only  moderately  sharp,  as  it  is 


W 


Fig.  10. 

not  required  to  cut.  The  two  irons  are  fastened 
together  by  the  screw,  s,  which  is  "  tapped" 
into  the  boss,  t,  formed  on  the  break-iron,  which 
is  shown  separately  in  fig.  10.  The  cutter  is  seen 
disconnected  from  the  break-iron  in  fig.  9.  The 


24  Our  Workshop. 

long  slot,  w,  enables  us  to  adjust  the  irons  longi- 
tudinally, and  also,  to  a  slight  extent,  sideways. 
The  round  hole,  h,  is  a  little  larger  than  the  head 
of  the  screw,  s,  to  permit  the  latter  to  pass 
through  when  we  wish  to  separate  the  irons, 
which  is  accomplished  by  unslacking  the  screw 
about  one  turn,  and  sliding  the  break -iron  back 
towards  the  hole,  h.  The  break-iron  of  the  jack- 
plane  is  generally  fixed,  so  that  its  edge  is  one- 
sixteenth  or  one-fifteenth  of  an  inch  behind  the 
edge  of  the  cutter.  If  the  break-iron  be  set 
back,  say  one- eighth  of  an  inch,  it  will  not  bend 
the  shavings  sufficiently,  and  the  planing  will 
very  probably  be  rough.  The  nearer  the  edges 
of  the  irons  are  to  each  other,  within  certain 
limits,  the  smoother  will  be  the  work  produced, 
but  the  labour  of  driving  the  plane  will  be  much 
increased.  The  edges  of  the  irons  are  set  farther 
apart  in  the  jack  and  similar  planes  than  in  the 
smoothing-planes,  as  the  surface  of  the  work  is 
not  finished  until  a  more  advanced  stage. 

Planes  having  single  irons  are  much  less 
laborious  to  handle,  but  the  work  executed  by 
them  is  neither  so  smooth  nor  so  truthful  as  that 
of  the  double -ironed  description.  The  shavings 
escape  in  long  curls  or  ribands  from  a  single 
iron,  and  the  surface  of  the  work  is  left  some- 
what rough.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  remove  the 
first  exterior  and  dirt  from  a  plank  with  a  single- 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  25 

ironed  plane,  after  which  the  jack  and  srnoothing- 
planes  will  work  pleasantly,  and  retain  their  edges 
for  a  longer  time. 

The  inclination  or  angle  at  which  the  iron  is 
fixed  in  the  stock  is  called  the  "pitch."  The 
pitch  is  regulated  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
wood  on  which  the  plane  is  to  be  used.  If  the 
workman  be  using  material  of  a  hard  and  close 
nature,  the  iron  must  have  much  less  inclination 
than  would  be  correct  for  soft  woods,  such  as 
deal  or  pine.  The  pitch  cannot  be  varied  in 
ordinary  planes,  therefore  two  or  more  planes, 
each  having  a  different  pitch,  must  be  provided, 
if  the  work  demands  much  change  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  wood. 

The  lowest,  or  common  pitch,  for  surfacing- 
planes  for  soft  woods,  like  pine  or  deal,  is  forty- 
five  degrees  from  the  horizontal  line  of  the  sole ; 
York  pitch,  or  fifty  degrees,  is  suitable  for  maho- 
gany, rosewood,  &c. ;  middle  pitch,  or  fifty-five 
degrees,  is  the  general  angle  for  irons  of  mould- 
ing-planes for  soft  woods,  and  is  also  correct  for 
smoothing-planes  for  hard  materials ;  half -pitch, 
or  sixty  degrees,  for  moulding-planes  for  maho- 
gany, rosewood,  and  other  woods  which  are  liable 
to  "  tear  up."  Still  harder  substances,  such  as 
boxwood,  ivory,  &c.,  require  planes  in  which  the 
pitch  entirely  disappears,  the  iron  being  fixed 
vertically.  In  some  instances  the  pitch  is  re- 


26  Our  Workshop. 

versed  by  inclining  the  iron  a  little  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  Both  these  planes  are  properly 
scrapers,  and  they  only  remove  the  material  in 
the  shape  of  dust. 

Having  considered  the  general  construction  of 
the  bench-planes,  we  will  now  offer  a  few  sugges- 
tions respecting  their  management. 

Before  setting  to  work,  the  irons  must  be 
sharpened  and  adjusted.  The  iron  is  disengaged 
from  the  stock  by  striking  the  latter  on  the  back 
end  behind  the  "toat;"  the  same  may  also  be 
effected  by  a  moderate  blow  on  the  upper  surface 
near  the  front  end.  The  hammer  should  never 
be  used  with  violence,  as  two  or  three  light  taps 
will  liberate  the  iron  and  not  bruise  the  stock. 
The  wedge  may  also  be  loosened  by  tapping  it 
on  either  side  alternately,  and,  when  sufficiently 
slack,  it  can  be  withdrawn  by  the  fingers. 

The  screw  which  secures  the  break-iron  to  the 
cutter  must  be  turned  back  about  one  revolution 
by  the  aid  of  a  large  screwdriver,  the  break-iron 
can  then  be  slipped  back  till  the  head  of  the 
screw  enters  the  hole,  h  (fig.  9),  in  the  cutter, 
when  the  irons  can  be  separated. 

If  the  iron  be  very  blunt,  it  must  first  be 
ground  and  then  set  on  the  oilstone  or  hone. 
The  grindstone  (fig.  11,  page  27)  should  be  of  a 
fine  and  moderately  quick  cutting  description. 
Probably  the  "bilstone"  is  the  best  quality  for 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


27 


amateur  purposes.  It  is  important  that  the  stone 
should  run  true,  and  the  circumference  to  which 
the  tools  are  applied  must  be  either  quite  flat  or 
a  little  rounded,  and  should  never  be  suffered  to 
become  hollow,  or  lower  at  the  centre  than  at 
the  edges.  The  iron  must  be  firmly  held  by 


Fig.  11. -Grindstone. 

both  hands,  and  applied  to  the  stone  at  an  angle 
of  about  twenty-five  degrees.  The  stone  should 
revolve  towards  the  edge,  to  avoid  forming  a 
"  wire  edge/'  which  is  ragged  and  saw-like,  and 
not  at  all  sharp.  The  iron  must  be  held  at  one 
constant  angle,  for  if  it  be  raised  higher  at  one 
time  than  at  another,  the  chamfer  or  bevil,  a,. 
will  not  be  ground  to  a  uniform  face,  but  will 
either  be  rounding  or  in  a  series  of  flats.  Though 
the  iron  must  be  held  rigidly  with  respect  to  the 
chamfer,  yet  it  is  necessary  to  move  it  backwards 


28  Our  Workshop. 

and  forwards  across  the  face  of  the  stone,,  to 
preserve  the  latter  from  unequal  wear,  and  this 
management  is  also  necessary  to  enable  us  to 
make  the  edge  of  the  iron  straight.  If  the  stone 
were  a  little  hollow  on  the  face,  the  corners  of 
iron  would  be  ground  away,  leaving  the  middle 
too  prominent.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  stone 
were  rounding  or  highest  at  the  middle,  the  iron 


Fig.  12. 

would,  if  kept  stationary,  be  ground  away  at  the 
centre,  and  not  at  the  corners. 

Grinding  plane-irons  and  firmer- chisels  is  a 
nice  operation,  and  requires  much  practice  to  do 
properly.  It  is  generally  found  difficult  to  restore 
the  iron  to  the  stone  exactly  at  the  same  angle 
after  it  has  been  temporarily  withdrawn  for  in- 
spection. The  wrists  ought  to  be  kept  rigidly 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  29 

fixed,  and  the  arms  should  be  held  closely  to  the 
sides,  to  impart  as  much  firmness  as  possible  to 
the  hands.  If  the  iron  be  weakly  held,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  grind  it  to  a  uniform  face,  as 
the  motion  of  the  stone  exerts  a  powerful  influ- 
ence in  changing  its  position. 

The  iron  being  satisfactorily  ground  on  the 
chamfer,  it  must  now  be  set  on  the  oilstone  to 
make  its  edge  smooth  and  keen.  It  must  be 
stated  that  the  flat  side  of  the  iron  should  never 


Fig.  13. 

be  applied  to  the  grindstone,  as  any  slight  burr 
can  be  much  better  removed  by  the  oilstone. 

Fig.  12  shows  the  position  in  which  the  iron 
should  be  applied  to  the  oilstone.  The  iron  is 
first  grasped  in  the  right  hand,  the  fingers  being 
placed  on  the  surface  and  the  thumb  turned 
underneath,  as  in  fig.  13.  The  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  must  now  be  lapped  over  those  of  the 
right,  and  the  thumb  must  also  be  placed  below 
to  support  the  iron.  Some  people  place  all, 
excepting  the  fore -finger,  below  the  iron,  and 


30  Our  Workshop. 

lap  the  left  thumb  over  the  right.  Either  of 
these  methods  is  good. 

The  oilstone,  like  the  grindstone,,  requires 
uniform  wear  to  keep  it  in  good  order. 

Next  to  the  "  Turkey  oilstone/'  the  "Charnley 
Forest "  is  esteemed  by  joiners  and  others  as 
the  best  for  giving  a  fine  edge  to  various  tools. 
The  stone  should  be  fixed  in  a  wooden  case,, 
provided  with  a  cover  to  exclude  the  dust  when 
it  is  not  in  use.  Sperm  oil  is  the  best  for 
sharpening  purposes  ;  but  neatsfoot  is  cheaper, 
and  may  be  considered  as  a  fair  substitute, 
being  devoid  of  unpleasant  smell,  and  not  liable 
to  thicken. 

The  plane-iron  should  be  held  at  a  constant 
angle  of  about  thirty-five  degrees,  and  must  be 
kept  square  across  the  face  of  the  stone.  If  the 
stone  be  narrower  than  -the  iron,  the  latter  must 
be  worked  from  side  to  side,  to  reduce  the  corners 
uniformly  with  the  middle.  If  the  iron  be  set 
askew,  so  that  one  corner  moves  in  advance  of 
the  other,  the  foremost  corner  will  be  ground 
away  too  rapidly,  and  the  edge  of  the  iron  will 
no  longer  be  square  to  the  sides.  When  the 
edge  is  required  to  be  slightly  rounded,  as  for 
rough  work,  a  light  roll  must  be  given  to  the 
blade  edgeways,  but  a  decided,  though  small 
chamfer,  should  be  imparted  to  the  irons  of 
smoothing-planes,  and  as  distinct  in  its  forma- 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  31 

tion  as  the  larger  one  made  by  the  grindstone. 
Much  pressure  should  be  avoided,  as  the  edge  is 
liable  to  bend  over,  and  become  what  is  called 
"wire  edge."  The  flat  side  of  the  iron  must 
now  be  laid  quite  flat  on  the  stone,  and  gently 
rubbed  a  few  times  to  remove  any  "  wire  edge  " 
which  may  have  formed.  Under  any  circum- 
stances, this  finishing  process  is  advantageous. 

If  the  iron  be  held  too  upright,  the  edge  is 
more  quickly  produced,  but  it  will  remain  sharp 
for  a  much  shorter  time  than  if  it  had  been  set  at 
a  lower  inclination.  It  is  obvious  that  if  the  iron 
were  sharpened  at  an  angle  of  forty- five  degrees, 
which  is  the  pitch  at  which  it  is  fixed  in  the 
stock,  the  chamfer  formed  by  the  oilstone  would 
rest  on  the  work,  and  consequently  would  act 
only  as  a  burnisher.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
angle  be  very  acute,  the  edge  will  be  too  thin  to 
be  durable ;  therefore  the  angle  of  thirty-five 
degrees  already  stated  appears  as  favourable  as 
any. 

The  irons  of  the  jack  and  other  long  planes 
are  ground  with  a  large  curve  or  arc,  to  make  the 
centre  part  of  the  blade  slightly  in  advance  of 
the  corners.  This  method  has  the  effect  of  re- 
ducing the  labour  which  would  otherwise  be 
required  to  urge  the  plane  forward.  The  irons 
of  smoothing-planes,  though  made  as  flat  and 
straight  as  possible  on  the  edge,  are,  neverthe- 


32  Our  Workshop. 

less,  slightly  rounded  at  the  corners,,  to  prevent 
their  leaving  marks  on  the  work. 

The  workman  judges  of  the  condition  of  the 
cutter  after  setting  it  on  the  oilstone,  partly  by 
the  eye  and  partly  by  sense  of  touch.  The  edge 
may  look  regular  and  sharp,  yet  it  may  not  be 
sufficiently  keen  to  penetrate  the  hardened  skin 
of  the  hand  when  gently  drawn  across  it,  which 
is  the  almost  universal  test  to  which  the  cutter 
is  applied  before  reinserting  it  in  the  stock. 

The  cutter  being  satisfactorily  set,  the  break- 
iron  must  be  attached.  If  the  plane  is  to  be 
used  for  coarse  wrork,  like  removing  the  rough 
outside  of  a  board,  &c.,  the  edge  of  the  break- 
iron  may  be  fixed  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
from  the  edge  of  the  cutter.  The  sides  of  the 
break-iron  should  be  parallel  with  those  of  the 
cutter,  and  the  corners  of  the  latter  must  be  equi- 
distant from  the  edge  of  the  break-iron.  If  it  be 
found  that  one  corner  of  the  cutter  is  nearer  the 
break-iron  than  the  other,  the  edge  of  the  cutter 
has  not  been  ground  and  set  square  to  its  sides. 
If  the  discrepancy  be  considerable,  the  cutter 
must  be  reground  to  rectify  the  error.  If  the 
break-iron  be  set  back  one- sixteenth  of  an  inch 
from  the  edge  of  the  cutter  at  the  centre,  and 
one  corner  of  the  cutter  stands  below  the  edge  of 
the  break-iron,  regrinding  is  inevitable. 

Supposing  the  irons  to  be  true  to  each  other, 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  33 

they  may  now  be  fixed  in  the  stock.  The  cutter 
must  be  laid  on  the  "bed/'  and  be  passed  down 
until  the  edge  is  level  with  the  sole  of  the  stock. 
The  wedge  is  next  put  in,  and  gently  tapped  to 
prevent  the  irons  falling  out.  The  plane  must 
then  be  held  so  that  the  upper  corner  of  the  back 
end  may  rest  on  the  bench,  while  the  front  end 
is  supported  by  the  right  hand.  The  eye  can 
now  be  directed  along  the  sole,  to  appreciate  the 
quantity  the  iron  is  made  to  project,  by  tapping 
it  lightly  with  the  hammer,  which  is  held  in  the 
left  hand.  When  the  edge  appears  slightly 
prominent,  the  wedge  must  be  knocked  in  a  little 
tighter,  but  violence  should  be  carefully  avoided. 
The  iron  should  at  all  times  be  slenderly  held, 
otherwise  the  stock  will  be  distorted.  If  in 
driving  the  wedge  forward  the  iron  should  also 
advance,  it  may  be  withdrawn  by  striking  a 
moderate  blow  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  stock 
near  the  front  end,  and  this  without  altering  the 
position  of  the  plane.  Should  one  corner  of  the 
edge  project  more  than  the  other,  the  iron  and 
wedge  must  be  slackened  by  a  blow  on  the  stock ; 
the  iron  can  then  be  set  square  by  a  few  taps  on 
the  opposite  corner  at  its  upper  end.  By  a  few 
well-directed  blows  of  the  hammer  the  edge  may 
be  satisfactorily  adjusted,  but  some  practice  is 
required  to  regulate  the  iron  so  nicely  by  eye, 
that  the  plane  will  act  properly  without  subse- 


34  OUT  Workshop. 

quent  correction.  It  may  perhaps  be  found  on 
trial  that  the  iron  does  not  project  sufficiently  to 
cut ;  a  light  tap  on  the  top  of  the  iron  will  pro- 
bably set  this  right.  Perhaps  the  iron  stands 
forward  too  much,  and  either  entirely  opposes 
the  action  of  the  plane,,  or  renders  the  cut  coarse 
and  rough ;  this  may  be  rectified  by  one  or  two 
light  blows,  either  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
stock  near  the  front  end,  or  on  the  back  extremity. 

These  instructions  equally  apply  to  the  smooth- 
ing-plane.  This  latter  being  required  to  produce 
as  smooth  a  surface  as  possible,  the  break-iron  is 
fixed  much  more  closely  to  the  edge  of  the  cutter, 
the  fortieth  or  fiftieth  of  an  inch  being  the  com- 
mon measure. 

The  planes  being  in  good  order,  the  wood  to 
be  planed  must  be  laid  on  the  bench,  the  stop,  8, 
fig.  1,  being  adjusted  so  as  to  stand  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  below  the  general  level  of  the 
plank.  If  two  opposite  corners  of  the  plank  be 
higher  than  the  other  parts,  the  board  is  "in 
winding;"  and  if  the  edges  or  the  middle  be  the 
most  prominent,  it  is  said  to  be  "  cast."  If  the 
plank  be  thin,  it  may  be  somewhat  straightened 
by  holding  one  end  firmly  on  the  bench,  and 
twisting  the  other  in  the  opposite  direction  to 
that  in  which  it  is  distorted.  If  the  wood  be  too 
hard  or  thick  to  admit  of  this  treatment,  the 
prominences  must  be  removed  by  the  plane. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  35 

The  proper  way  to  hold  the  jack  and  similar 
planes  is  shown  in  fig.  14.  The  toat  or  handle  is 
firmly  grasped  by  the  right  hand,  while  the  left 
is  placed  about  half-way  between  the  front  end  of 
the  plane  and  the  mouth.  The  thumb  of  the  left 
hand  is  towards  the  workman,  and  all  the  fingers 
are  placed  on  the  off-side  of  the  tool.  The  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  force  necessary  to  urge  the 
plane  forward  is  transmitted  by  the  right  hand 


i 


through  the  handle  or  toat,  the  left  hand  acting 
more]  as  a  guide,  and  to  keep  the  front  of  the 
plane  down  to  its  work,  than  as  a  motor,  though 
it  does  undoubtedly  assist  in  that  way  to  some 
extent. 

If  the  plank  be  either"  cast "  or  "  in  winding," 

the  prominent  parts  must  first  be  cropped  off  by 

running  the  jack-plane  over  them  respectively, 

until  the  plank  is  made  roughly  level.    The  plane 

D  2 


36  Our  Workshop. 

must  then  be  driven  from  one  end  of  the  board 
to  the  other,  if  its  length  be  under  four  feet ;  at 
all  events,  the  shavings  should  be  at  least  two 
feet  six  inches  or  three  feet  in  length,  to  insure 
the  accurate  working  of  the  tool.  The  plane 
requires  to  be  kept  firmly  down  to  its  work, 
which  is  done  more  by  allowing  the  weight  of  the 
body  to  rest  on  it  through  the  arms,  than  by  any 
direct  muscular  effort.  If  the  plane  be  making 
a  good  continuous  shaving,  the  workman  should 
endeavour,  by  moving  the  plane  with  a  steady 
and  uninterrupted  motion,  to  carry  it  to  the  end 
of  the  work.  This  after  a  little  practice  is  not 
difficult  to  achieve,  for  if  the  plane  be  in  good 
order,  and  the  ' '  stuff "  is  tolerably  straight,  the 
workman  after  starting  the  cut  can  walk  from 
one  end  of  the  work  to  the  other,  and  keep  the 
plane  moving  at  the  same  uniform  rate.  It  is 
not  unfrequently  found  that  the  wood  planes 
more  smoothly  from  one  end  than  from  the  other ; 
it  is  therefore  desirable  to  reverse  the  plank  end 
for  end  if  the  grain  "  tears  up/'  notwithstanding 
the  use  of  a  finely-set  iron. 

On  the  return  stroke,  the  plane  should  not 
only  be  entirely  relieved  of  all  downward  pres- 
sure, but  the  back  end  or  heel  should  be  slightly 
raised  to  prevent  useless  friction  on  the  sole. 
When  planing  short  pieces,  the  plane  is  generally 
lifted  some  little  distance  off  the  work. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  37 

When  the  rough  exterior  is  removed  and  the 
plank  has  been  made  tolerably  flat,  the  jack- 
plane  should  be  laid  aside  for  the  trying-plane. 
If  our  readers  do  not  possess  this  tool,  which  is 
similar  in  character,  only  considerably  longer, 
than  the  jack-plane,  they  must  reset  their  jack- 
plane  and  fix  the  break-iron  very  close  to  the 
edge  of  the  cutter,  and  adjust  this  latter  with  a 
very  fine  cut.  After  a  few  strokes  have  been 
made  over  the  general  surface  of  the  plank,  the 
work  should  be  tested  with  a  straight-edge,  which 
is  simply  a  thin  bar  of  hard  wood  (mahogany  or 
metal),  which  has  been  very  carefully  made,  so 
as  to  insure  an  edge  as  accurately  straight  as 
possible.  If  the  work  be  lower  in  the  middle 
than  at  the  ends,  the  straight-edge  will  only 
rest  on  the  ends  and  not  touch  in  the  middle. 
This  want  of  truth  in  the  work  is  readily  detected 
by  the  line  of  light  which  is  seen  between  the 
edge  of  the  straight-edge  and  the  work,  where 
the  latter  is  "  hollow."  The  curative  treatment 
is  obvious  ;  we  must  lower  the  ends  of  the  plank 
by  planing  a  little  off  them,  and  so  reduce  them 
to  a  level  with  the  lowest  part. 

If  the  work  be  highest  at  the  middle,  the 
straight-edge  will  rock  as  on  a  centre,  owing 
to  the  ends  being  unsupported.  If  the  discre- 
pancy be  so  slight  as  to  occasion  neither  a 
decided  rocking  nor  to  show  a  line  of  light,  the 


38  Our  Workshop. 

seat  of  error  may  be  discovered  by  holding  the 
straight-edge  at  the  centre  between  the  fore- 
finger and  thumb,  and  twisting  or  rotating  it 
slowly  backwards  and  forwards  for  a  short 
distance.  If  the  highest  part  of  the  work  be 
immediately  under  the  centre  of  the  straight- 
edge, it  will  be  plainly  felt  at  that  point,  and  the 
ends  will  move  quite  freely ;  but  if  the  straight- 
edge rests  on  two  or  more  points  on  either  side 
of  the  centre,  the  fact  is  made  apparent  by  the 
increased  resistance  offered  to  its  movements. 

In  the  preparatory  stage,  before  the  work  has 
become  sufficiently  true  to  require  the  severer 
test  of  the  straight-edge,  its  approach  towards 
accuracy  is  tried  by  placing  the  edge  of  the  plane 
obliquely  across  it  in  the  manner  of  a  straight- 
edge. The  workman  also  raises  one  end  of  the 
work  to  the  level  of  his  eye  and  glances  along  it, 
or  if  the  work  be  too  large  to  be  conveniently 
lifted,  he  stoops  to  attain  the  same  relative  posi- 
tion, and  in  this  way  at  once  discovers  the  undu- 
lations which  are  to  be  rectified. 

If  the  work  is  to  be  planed  on  both  sides  it 
should  now  be  "  gauged  to  thickness,"  and 
turned  over,  as  the  second  side  must  be  made 
true  before  the  final  finish  is  put  on  the  first. 
It  will  be  almost  invariably  found  that  the  board 
will  cast  a  little  on  the  removal  of  the  rough 
outside  :  it  would  therefore  be  a  waste  of  labour 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


39 


to  complete  one  side  before  touching  the  other ; 
in  fact,  the  endeavour  should  always  be  to  carry 
on  the  work  so  that  the  opposite  parts  may 
balance  each  other  as  nearly  as  possible,  and 
thereby  avoid  distortion. 

The  two   sides   or    "  surfaces "  of   the  board 
being  now  true  and  flat,  the  edges  must  next  be 


Fig.  15. 

"  shot "  or  planed.  To  do  this  conveniently  the 
board  should  be  fixed  in  the  screw-chops  of  the 
bench  (C,  fig.  1).  Fig.  15  illustrates  the  manner 
of  fixing  the  wood  and  handling  the  plane.  The 
front  end  only  of  the  plank  can  be  held  in  the 
chops,  the  other  extremity  is  therefore  supported 
by  a  small  iron  bolt,  which  is  slipped  into  one  of 
a  series  of  holes  made  for  that  purpose  in  eome 


40  Our  Workshop. 

convenient  part  of  the  frame  of  the  bench.  It 
will  be  seen  that  in  "  shooting  "  an  edge,  the  left 
hand  is  differently  applied  to  the  front  end  of  the 
plane  to  what  it  is  when  surfacing.  The  thumb 
is  allowed  to  rest  on  the  top  of  the  plane,  and 
the  fingers  are  bent  under  the  sole  to  support  it, 
the  narrow  edge  of  the  board  not  affording 
sufficient  base  to  keep  the  plane  steady.  The 
truth  of  the  edge  can  be  tested  longitudinally  by 
looking  along  it,  and  also  by  trying  it  with  the 
straight-edge.  The  edge  not  only  requires  to  be 
straight  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  but  it  must 
also  be  made  sauare  to  the  sides. 


Fig.  16.— The  Square. 

The  square  (fig.  16)  is  the  tool  by  which  the 
truth  of  all  right-angled  surfaces  is.  ascertained. 
The  joiner's  square  consists  of  a  steel  blade, 
which  is  made  quite  straight  on  the  edges, 
which  also  require  to  be  perfectly  parallel  to 
each  other.  This  blade  is  firmly  fixed  exactly 
at  right  angles  in  a  stock  formed  of  hard  wood, 
which  is  faced  with  brass  on  the  inner  edge  to 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  41 

increase  its  durability.  The  inner  edge  of  the 
stock  must  be  firmly  held  against  the  flat  surface 
of  the  board,  taking  care  that  it  rests  fairly  ;  the 
square  must  then  be  gradually  lowered  till  the 
edge  of  the  blade  comes  in  contact  with  the  edge 
of  the  board.  If  the  edge  be  square  to  the  sides, 
the  blade  of  the  square  will  touch  throughout  the 
thickness  of  the  board,  but  if  the  work  be 
untrue,  the  blade  of  the  square  will  rest  on  the 
highest  point,  which  must  be  reduced  till  the 
square  bears  fairly.  The  square  must  be  applied 
-at  intervals  of  a  few  inches  throughout  the  length 
of  the  plank,  and  frequently  during  the  progress 
of  the  work. 


Fig.  17.— Rule. 

When  the  edge  has  been  made  true,  both  in 
the  longitudinal  and  cross  directions,  the  board 
must  be  removed  from  the  chops  and  laid  flat  on 
the  bench.  The  finished  width  of  the  board  is 
now  to  be  marked.  If  the  plank  be  more  than 
six  inches  wide,  the  rule  (fig.  17)  will  be  the 
proper  means  to  employ.  Suppose  the  plank  is 


42  Our  Workshop. 

required  to  be  six  inches  wide  throughout  its 
length  or  parallel,  the  width  can  be  measured 
and  marked  at  each  end  on  the,  surface;  a 
straight-edge  must  then  be  adjusted  to  the  marks 
and  a  line  ruled.  If  the  work  to  be  marked  is 
only  two  or  three  inches  wide,,  the  marliuirj- 
gauc/e  (fig.  18)  is  used.  This  tool  is  made 
of  hard  wood,  and  consists  simply  of  a  stem 


Fig.  18.— Marking- gauge. 

furnished  with  a  closely-fitting  block,  which  is 
capable  of  sliding  stiffly  along  it,  and  of  being 
fixed  in  any  desired  position,  either  by  a  wedge 
or  a  set  screw.  Near  one  end  of  the  stem  a  flat 
steel  point  or  scriber  is  inserted,  for  marking  or 
scoring  a  line  on  the  work.  The  point  should 
not  project  more  than  one  thirty-second  part  of 
an  inch,  or  it  will  make  a  deep  unsightly  mark. 

To  adjust  the  gauge  it  is  only  necessary  to 
slacken  the  wedge  or  screw  which  fixes  the 
movable  block  or  head,  and  to  hold  the  latter  in 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  4-3 

the  hand  and  strike  either  end  of  the  stem 
against  the  bench,  or  tap  it  with  the  hammer. 
If  the  distance  from  the  point  of  the  scriber  to 
the  face  of  the  head  be  two  inches,  and  we  wish 
to  gauge  a  line,  say  two  inches  and  a  half,  or  any 
greater  distance  within  the  range  of  the  gauge,. 


Fig.  19- 

we  must  strike  the  opposite  end  of  the  stem  to 
that  in  which  the  scriber  is  fixed  ;  and  the  reverse, 
if  we  desire  it,  to  decrease  the  space  between  the 
head  and  the  point. 

The  correct  way  of  holding  the  marking-gauge 
is  shown  in  fig.  19.  The  work,  if  light,  is  supported 


44  Our  Workshop. 

in  an  inclined  position  by  the  left  hand,,  and  the 
gauge  is  applied  by  the  right.  It  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  head  of  the  gauge  firmly  against  the 
edge  of  the  work  to  which  it  is  wished  to  make 
the  line  parallel,,  otherwise  any  crookedness  in 
the  grain  of  the  wood  will  be  liable  to  send  the 
gauge  askew. 

We  have,,  though  unavoidably,  wandered  from 
the  operation  we  had  in  hand,  viz.,  the  planing 
of  a  board,  to  which  we  at  once  hasten  to 
return. 


Fig.  20. 

Both  edges  of  the  plank  are  now  supposed  to 
be  true  and  parallel  to  each  other ;  it  is  there- 
fore only  necessary  to  finish  the  surfaces  with  the 
smoothing-plane  to  complete  our  first  attempt  at 
carpentry,  Fig.  20  represents  the  manner  of 
holding  the  smoothing- plane.  The  right  hand  is 
placed  behind  the  wedge,  so  that  the  thumb  shall 
press  against  one  side  of  the  stock,  and  all  the 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  45 

fingers  on  the  other.  The  left  hand  is  clasped 
round  the  front  end  of  the  plane,  and  the  thumb 
rests  on  the  upper  surface.  The  workman  has 
complete  control  over  the  plane,  and  if  the  grain 
of  the  wood  be  short  and  cross,  or  hard,  knotty, 
or  tough,  he  imparts  a  "  side-long  "  sweep  to  the 
tool,  which  somewhat  facilitates  its  action  as  a 
smoother  "by  enabling  it  to  attack  the  grain  as- 
favourable  as  possible.  If  the  wood  be  clean 
and  of  uniform  hardness,  the  course  of  the 
plane  should  be  quite  straight,  and  the  strokes 
of  moderate  length.  At  the  termination  of 
every  stroke  the  plane  is  entirely  lifted  off  the 
work,  and  is  reapplied  at  any  point,  where, 
either  from  the  indication  of  the  straight-edge 
or  the  appearance  of  the  work,  it  may  be  deemed 
requisite  by  the  carpenter. 

If  the  thin  "  stuff "  which  we  have  "  planed 
up  "  be  intended  for  forming  the  ff  carcase  "  of 
a  box  or  any  similar  piece  of  rectangular  work, 
the  sides  must  now  be  marked  out  and  cut  off. 
The  plank  is  suffered  to  lie  flat  on  the  bench, 
and  the  square  is  applied,  so  that  the  stock  may 
rest  fairly  against  one  of  the  edges  which  has 
been  carefully  planed.  The  square  must  be 
adjusted,  so  that  the  outer  edge  of  the  blade 
may  be  ivithin  the  lowest  part  of  the  end  of  the* 
plank,  which  is  next  the  "  stop  "  of  the  bench. 
A  pencil  line  is  now  to  be  marked,  taking  care 


46  Our  Workshop. 

that  it  be  perfectly  square  to  the  edges  of  the 
plank.  The  board  must  next  be  removed  and 
fixed  in  the  chops  of  the  bench,  so  that  the  end 
just  marked  may  stand  a  little  above  them.  The 
end  is  supposed  to  have  been  sawn  tolerably 
square  to  the  edges,  when  the  wood  was 
"  roughed  out ;"  but  if,  owing  to  bad  workman- 
ship, the  end  is  much  out  of  truth  with  the  line 
marked  from  the  square,  the  saw  must  be 
employed  to  remove  the  greater  part  of  the 
material,  previously  to  applying  the  plane.  The 
sinoothing-plane  must  be  very  finely  set,  other- 
wise it  will  "  tear  up  "  the  fibre  of  the  wood, 
which  is  exceedingly  fragile  in  the  cross  direction 
of  the  grain.  The  plane  must  be  used  cautiously 
when  shooting  the  ends,  to  avoid  the  "spoiling 
off"  that  is,  breaking  away  the  fibre  as  a  splinter 
on  the  front  edge  towards  which  the  plane  is 
moving.  The  tendency  to  "  spall  off"  may  be 
lessened  by  holding  the  plane  somewhat  obliquely, 
to  enable  the  iron  to  attack  the  fibre  in  the  cross 
direction,  and  by  running  off  tine  stroke  by  lifting 
the  plane  from  the  work  just  before  the  extreme 
corner  is  reached. 

The  result  of  this  treatment  will  be  to  leave 
the  far  corner  too  high,  but  this  can  be  rectified 
by  turning  the  board  and  bringing  the  frqnt 
edge  towards  the  workman.  The  plane  is  again 
used  as  before,  till  the  high  corner  is  reduced  to 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  47 

the  proper  level.  The  square  must  now  be 
applied  from  the  edge,  to  discover  if  the  end  be 
truly  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  also  from  the 
surface,  to  test  the  accuracy  in  the  direction  of 
the  thickness.  Before  using  the  square,  any 
roughness  on  the  edges  of  the  work  must  be 
removed,  otherwise  the  square  will  fail  to 
indicate  its  actual  condition,  and  will  lead  the 
workman  astray. 

If  the  longitudinal  edges  of  the  work  be  strictly 
parallel  to  each  other,  the  end  of  the  work  will 
be  square,  or  at  right  angles  to  both  of  them. 
By  applying  the  square  to  the  edges  respectively 
any  discrepancy  which  may  exist  will  be  made 
apparent. 

Sometimes  the  square  is  untrue.  If  the  blade 
be  badly  fitted  or  ill-secured  in  the  stock  it  is 
liable  to  shift,  and  occasion  much  trouble.  The 
truth  of  the  square  may  easily  be  tested  by 
applying  the  stock  to  the  edge  of  a  board,  which 
has  been  carefully  ""shot,"  and  drawing  a  line 
against  the  outer  and  inner  edges  of  the  blade. 
The  square  must  then  be  turned  over,  and  if  the 
edges  still  agree  with  the  lines  it  is  true.  It 
may  also  be  tested  by  another  square  which  is 
known  to  be  accurate. 

The  length  'of  one  side  of  the  box  is  now 
measured  off  from  the  end  which  has  just  been 
completed,  and  a  line  is  squared  across.  The 


48 


Our  Workshop. 


saw  must  be  kept  outside  this  line,  which  is  to 
be  approached  only  by  the  plane.  The  end  of 
the  plank  is  again  squared  and  planed  up,  and 
and  so  on  successively  until  the  four  sides  are 
cut  off.  The  opposite  end  of  each  of  the  sides 
must  then  be  planed,  after  which  the  carcase 
may  be  nailed  or  glued  together.  The  various 
methods  of  uniting  works  will  be  considered 
hereafter. 

If  the  work  be  thin,  the  edges  are  not  suffi- 
ciently wide  to  afford  a  steady  base  for  the  sole 


Fig.  21. 


of  the  plane,  consequently  the  difficulty  of 
"  shooting  the  edge  true"  is  materially  increased. 
The  shooting -board  is  a  valuable  auxiliary  when 
the  work  to  be  planed  is  long  and  thin.  Fig. 
21  is  an  end,  and  fig.  22  a  perspective  view  of 
a  shooting-board,  suitable  for  the  longitudinal 
edges  of  work.  It  consists  of  a  stout  plank, 
about  four  feet  long  and  sixteen  inches  wide. 
To  the  upper  side  of  this  piece,  which  is  called 
the  bed,  and  which  must  be  quite  true,  is  secured 
a  strip,  c  D,  of  the  same  length,  and  about  two- 


Carpentry  mid  Joinery.  49 

thirds  of  tlie  width  of  the  bed.  A  stop,  s,  is 
fixed  at  the  end  of  the  strip,  to  keep  the  work 
steady.  It  is  important  that  the  strip  on  which 
the  work,  w  w,  is  laid  be  quite  flat,  and  square 
to  the  upper  side  of  the  bed,  A  B,  to  which  it  is 
permanently  fixed  by  screws. 

If  the  bed  and  strip  of  the  shooting-board  be 
true,  and  the  side  of  the  plane,  which  rests  and 
slides  on  the  bed,  be  strictly  at  right  angles  to 


Fig.  22. 

/ 

the  sole,  the  edges  of  the  work  will  be  made 
accurately  square  to  its  sides.  The  work  must 
be  tested  with  the  square,  and  if  the  edges  be 
not  at  right  angles,  the  defect  is  probably 
occasioned  by  the  "  iron,"  which  may  not  be 
square  in  the  stock  ;  a  few  taps  on  the  corner  of 
the  iron  will  rectify  the  discrepancy. 
E 


50 


Our  Workshop. 


Fig.  23  shows  the  work,  w,  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  course  of  the  plane,  to  enable  us  to 
finish  the  end.  It  is  important  to  have  the  end, 


Fig.  21*. 


F,  of  the  stop  truly  at  right  angles  to  the  edge  of 
the  strip,  against  which  the  sole  of  the  plane 
runs.  The  strip  should  be  made  as  wide  as 
possible,  to  afford  room  for  a  broad  stop,  which 


Fig.  24. 


is  of  much  assistance  in  keeping  the  work  square 
while  it  is  being  planed. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


51 


The  edge  of  work  is  sometimes  beveled, 
instead  of  at  right  angles,  to  the  sides.  When 
this  is  to  be  done,  the  shooting-board  must  be 
modified,  as  in  figs.  24  and  25.  The  bed,  B,  has 
a  rebate  planed  along  one  of  its  edges,  E,  which 
fits  a  groove  formed  in  the  side  of  the  board,  T, 
the  upper  edge  of  which  is  beveled  to  the  angle 
we  desire  to  impart  to  the  work,  generally  forty- 
five  degrees. 


Fig.  25. 

If  we  require  the  end  of  the  work  to  form  any 
•other  than  right  angles  with  the  edges,  a  separate 
block,  i  (fig.  26),  of  the  correct  angle,  must  be 
temporarily  attached  to  the  shooting-board, 
which  is  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  one 


52 


Our  WorJcskop. 


represented  in  fig.  23.  The  loose  blocks  are 
usually  made  to  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees, 
which  is  very  frequently  employed  in  joinery 
works. 


Fig.  26. 

The  stop  of  the  shooting-board  acts  bene- 
ficially in  checking  the  tendency  to  spall  off,  to 
which  the  work  is  so  liable  when  planed  across 
the  grain.  If  the  work  be  kept  firmly  against 
the  stop,  the  wood,  which  otherwise  might  spall 
off,  is  well  supported. 

The  use  of  the  hand-saw  and  the  plane  seemed 
to  call  for  special  notice,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to 
consider  the  several  other  tools  employed  by  the 
carpenter  and  joiner,  until  we  require  them  for 
our  work. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery,  53 


CHAPTER  III. 

REMARKS    ON    THE    SEASONING   AND    CHOICE    OF 
THE    WOODS. 

|T  is  impossible  to  construct  sound  and 
durable  work,,  if  the  material  employed  be 
green  or  unseasoned :  the  firmest  joints 
that  can  be  made  will  part,  and  the  entire 
fabric  become  distorted  and  worthless.  The 
practical  carpenter  is  well  aware  of  this,  and  if 
he  be  wise  and  value  his  reputation,  he  will 
spare  no  pains  to  insure  the  complete  seasoning 
of  his  timber. 

The  winter  is  the  usual  season  for  felling 
timber,  at  which  time  the  wood  is  less  copiously 
.charged  with  sap,  owing  to  the  circulation  being 
almost  entirely  checked  by  the  cold.  After  the 
trunk  is  cut  down,  it  is  allowed  to  remain  un- 
touched for  a  few  months,  but  it  should  be 
sheltered  from  the  direct  influence  of  the  sun, 
otherwise  the  exposed  parts  are  liable  to  become 
shaken  or  cracked.  The  next  stage  in  the  season- 
ing commences  after  the  trunk  is  sawn  into 
planks,  which,  being  comparatively  thin,  and 
presenting  two  sides  to  the  atmosphere,  mate- 


54  Our  Workshop. 

rially  hasten  the  process.  While  in  the  entire 
form,  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  wood 
could  only  proceed  slowly,  consequently  the 
planks  still  contain  much  sap. 

The  planks  are  now  formed  into  a  stack,  which 
must  be  raised  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
especial  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  wood 
from  actual  contact,  by  inserting  narrow  strips 
between  the  ends  of  the  planks,  and  also  at 
distances  of  about  eight  feet  apart.  By  this 
arrangement  a  free  circulation  of  air  is  insured, 
and  the  seasoning  is  favourably  and  expeditiously 
accomplished. 

Even  timber  in  the  stack  is  not  entirely  free 
from  the  ravages  of  the  (C  shake,"  which  will 
attack  the  ends  of  the  planks ;  and  the  uppermost 
layer,  which  serves  as  a  roof  to  the  remainder,  is 
frequently  almost  destroyed  by  the  changes  from 
wet  to  dry. 

Thin  planks,  if  judiciously  stacked,  will  gene- 
rally season  in  about  eighteen  months,  but  thick 
pieces  require  a  much  longer  exposure.  The 
timber  must  not  be  employed  for  works  of  im- 
portance immediately  on  its  removal  from  the 
stack.  The  carpenter  p]aces  several  planks  in 
racks,  which  retain  them  in  a  vertical  position 
near  his  shop,  and  shortly  before  "  working  the 
stuff"  he  removes  it  inside  the  house  to  insure 
its  complete  seasoning. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  55 

If  the  seasoning  be  carried  forward  too  rapidly, 
or  is  forced  by  subjecting  the  material  to  the 
direct  influence  of  the  fire,  it  is  deprived  of  its 
toughness  and  elasticity ;  or,  as  the  carpenter 
would  say,  "  the  nature  has  been  taken  out  of 
it."  If  the  timber  is  to  be  durable,  the  season- 
ing must  be  gradual  and  complete. 

Though  the  wood  may  have  been  thoroughly 
seasoned,  it  is  impossible  to  guard  against  the 
effects  of  change  of  temperature,  and  the  liability 
to  reabsorb  moisture,  if  placed  in  a  damp  situa- 
tion. On  again  becoming  dry,  the  plank  will 
probably  no  longer  retain  its  former  shape,  but 
be  more  or  less  twisted  or  "  in  winding,"  which 
is  a  peculiar  spiral  twist,  running  through  it  in 
the  direction  of  its  length,  so  that  if  the  board 
were  laid  on  the  bench,  it  would  rest  on  two  cross 
corners,  on  which  it  would  rock. 

Straight -grained  woods  are  not  subjected  to 
any  considerable  change  in  the  lengthway  of  the 
grain,  but  a  distortion,  called  "  warping,"  is 
very  prevalent  in  the  soft,  as  well  as  in  the  hard, 
varieties  in  the  cross  directions.  Thin  boards 
are  sometimes  curved  like  a  bow  in  their  cross 
sections.  The  joiner  restores  them  to  their 
original  condition  by  ranging  them  round  the 
shop,  with  the  convex  sides  towards  the  fire, 
which,  by  evaporating  the  moisture,  will  cause 
the  fibres  of  the  wood  to  contract,  and  so  bring 


56  Our  Workshop. 

it  to  its  proper  shape.  The  wood  must  not  be 
too  long  exposed  to  the  fire,  or  the  remedy  will 
be  as  bad  or  worse  than  the  disease,  as  the 
board  will  become  concave  on  the  side  next  to 
the  heat,  and  convex  on  the  other,  thus  reversing, 
instead  of  removing,  the  evil.  This  may  be 
avoided  by  frequently  changing  the  sides  when 
the  boards  have  become  flat,  in  order  to  air  them 
equally. 

Sometimes,  when  the  wood  is  too  much  dis- 
torted to  yield  to  the  last-mentioned  treatment, 
the  joiner  warms  it  equally  on  both  sides  to 
lessen  its  rigidity,  and  bends  it  as  straight  as  he 
can  by  his  hands.  If  the  stuff  will  not  retain  the 
required  shape,  it  must  be  again  warmed,  and 
placed  between  two  stout  planks,  which  are 
drawn  closely  together  by  handscrews. 

If  the  plank  to  be  wrought  be  too  thick  to 
admit  of  correction  by  the  means  just  described, 
the  prominences  must  be  removed  by  the  plane. 
No  considerable  distortion  is  to  be  feared  in  the 
straight-grained  woods,  such  as  pine  and  maho- 
gany, provided  the  seasoning  has  been  properly 
conducted.  The  finely-figured  woods,  which 
chiefly  owe  their  beauty  to  the  great  irregularity 
of  the  grain,  would  be  very  liable  to  twist  and 
warp,  if  employed  in  the  same  way  as  the  straight- 
grained  description.  The  handsomely-marked 
woods  are  too  costly  to  admit  of  their  being  used 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  57 

of  sufficient  thickness  for  the  top  of  a  table,  the 
sides  of  a  box,  or  any  similar  article.  The  wood 
is  therefore  cut  into  very  thin  slices,  called 
veneer,  which  is  glued  on  the  plain  wood  of  which 
the  fabric  is  constructed. 

The  amateur  should  always  keep  a  stock  of 
well-seasoned  wood  in  his  shop,  and  should  never 
use  material  which  has  lately  been  taken  from 
the  carpenter's  rack. 

When  choosing  his  woods,  the  amateur  must 
be  careful  to  select  "  clean  stuff,"  free  from  'knots, 
shakes,  and  doats.  "Coats"  are  black  stains, 
occasioned  by  the  confined  sap  which  has  not 
evaporated,  owing  to  the  planks  having  rested  in 
contact  during  their  seasoning  in  the  stack. 

Pine,  also  commonly  called  Deal,  is  very  largely 
employed  in  house-carpentry  and  other  works. 
It  is  very  clean  and  straight  in  grain,  of  a  light 
colour,  and  easily  wrought.  The  colour  is  much 
influenced  by  the  quantity  of  resinous  matter  or 
turpentine  contained  in  its  pores,  which  imparts 
either  a  red  or  yellow  tinge  to  the  wood,  from 
which  peculiarity  has  arisen  the  distinctive  titles 
of  red  and  yellow  deals. 

Spruce  is  of  the  same  family,  but  of  inferior 
quality.  It  is  of  a  harder  nature  and  whiter 
colour,  and,  owing  to  the  knots  with  which  it 
abounds,  is  seldom  employed  for  any  except  the 


58  Our  Workshop. 

commonest  purposes.  These  woods  are  natives 
of  cold  countries,  where  they  thrive  the  best. 
Our  largest  supplies  of  this  valuable  timber 
are  exported  from  Norway,  Baltic  Port,  Memel, 
Riga,  and  Dantzic. 

Oak  is  a  very  hard  and  durable  wood,  easily 
distinguishable  by  its  yellowish-brown  colour. 
The  English  oak  is  esteemed  the  best,  and  is 
very  extensively  employed  for  ship -building, 
carpentry,  substantial  framing,  and  other  works 
requiring  considerable  strength.  It  is  little 
affected  by  exposure  to  the  weather,  and  is 
therefore  much  used  for  numerous  outdoor 
works,  for  the  spokes  and  naves  of  wheels,  &c. 
Some  kinds,  having  a  red  tinge,  are  inferior  to 
the  brown,  and  are  used  only  for  ornamental 
furniture. 

Elm  is  a  very  useful  wood,  and  exceedingly 
durable  if  employed  in  wet  or  damp  situations. 
It  is  unrivalled  for  dock-works,  rough  pumps, 
water-works,  piles  for  foundations,  keels  of  ves- 
sels, boards  of  coffins,  and  many  similar  purposes. 
In  drying,  it  shrinks  and  twists  very  much,  and 
is  inapplicable  to  works  in  which  permanence  of 
form  is  imperative.  Elm  is  porous  and  cross- 
grained,  but  it  is  not  liable  to  split,  and  bears 
the  driving  of  nails  better  than  any  other  timber. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  59 

The  colour  is  a  dull  red-brown,  and  much  darker 
than  oak. 

Ash  is  a  tough  and  very  flexible  wood ;  it  is 
not,  however,  suitable  for  building  purposes.  It 
is  much  used  for  the  frames  of  machines,  felloes 
of  wheels,  agricultural  implements,  hand- spikes, 
handles  of  hammers,  and  many  similar  works. 
For  works  subjected  to  sudden  and  severe  strains, 
ash  may  be  considered  superior  to  any  other 
timber,  its  elasticity  being  so  perfect  that  it 
may  be  bent  almost  double  without  breaking. 

Beech  is  not  employed  for  building,  but  is  ex- 
cellent for  piles  in  wet  foundations  and  similar 
works.  This  wood  is  naturally  hard  and  of  a 
close,  firm  texture.  It  is  extensively  used  for  the 
frames  of  machines,  furniture,  stocks  of  planes, 
handles  of  tools,  and  lathe-chucks.  When 
stained  and  polished  it  looks  exceedingly  well. 

Birch-wood  is  much  esteemed  by  the  turner.  It 
is  compact  in  the  grain,  of  a  darker  colour,  and 
more  easily  worked  than  beech.  .  Some  pieces 
of  this  wood  are  as  handsomely  marked  as  Hon- 
duras mahogany,  and,  when  polished,  may  be 
easily  mistaken  for  it. 

Mahoyany. — Of  this  wood  there  are  two  varie- 


60  Our  Workshop. 

ties,  viz.,  Spanish  and  Honduras.  The  former 
is  in  every  respect  superior  to  the  latter,,  and  is 
generally,  owing  to  its  great  beauty,  cut  into 
veneers,  which  are  glued  on  stout  fabrics  con- 
structed of  Honduras  or  Baywood^,  which,  though 
not  often  finely  figured,  is  exceedingly  good  for 
the  inside  works  of  furniture.  It  is  of  a  reddish- 
brown  colour,  sometimes  open  and  irregular  in 
the  grain,  and  the  inferior  kinds  are  filled  with 
specks  and  short  grey  lines.  Some  few  speci- 
mens are  of  a  fine  golden  colour,  with  handsome 
veins  and  figures. 

For  furniture  and  other  indoor  works,  maho- 
gany is  unrivalled.  It  shrinks  less  in  drying 
than  any  other  wood,  is  susceptible  of  a  high 
polish,  and  is  little  liable  to  twist  or  warp,  and 
holds  the  glue  the  best  of  all.  Foundry  patterns 
are  often  made  of  it,  as  it  resists  the  moisture  of 
the  damp  sand,  which  does  not,  therefore,  ad- 
here to  it  so  readily  as  to  a  softer  wood.  Maho- 
gany is  also  in  much  request  amongst  turners. 

Rosewood  is  another  valuable  furniture  wood. 
Its  colour  varies  from  light  hazel  to  deep  purple, 
or  nearly  black.  Some  specimens  are  as  open  in 
the  grain  as  coarse  mahogany,  but  the  best 
qualities  are  cut  into  veneers,  and  even  solid 
pieces  are  used  for  cabinet  and  upholstery  works. 
The  harder  kinds  may  be  very  highly  polished, 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  61 

but   it    seldom     retains    its     lustre    so   long   as 
mahogany. 

"Mr.  Edwards  say  s,  that  at  the  time  when  rose- 
wood was  first  imported,  there  was  on  the  scale- 
of  Custom-house  duties,  '  Lignum  Rhodium,  per 
ton,  £40/  referring  to  the  wood  from  which  the 
oil  of  Rhodium  was  extracted,  which  at  that  time 
realized  a  very  high  price.  The  officers  claimed 
the  like  duty  on  the  furniture  rosewood.  It  was 
afterwards  imported  as  Jacaranda,  Palisander^ 
and  Palaxander  wood,  by  which  names  it  is  still 
called  on  the  Continent.  The  duty  was  entirely 
removed,  and  the  consumption  has  proportion- 
ably  increased.  It  is  now  only  known  as  rose- 
wood, some  logs  of  which  have  produced  as  much 
as  £150  when  cut  into  veneers." 

Walnut  is  a  handsomely-figured  wood,  much 
used  for  furniture,  for  which  purpose  the  finest 
veneers  are  also  employed.  Large  quantities  are 
still  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
stocks  ;  the  prices  of  which,  in  the  rough,  range 
from  a  few  pence  to  a  couple  of  guineas  each. 

Boxwood  is  an  exceedingly  hard  and  useful 
wood,  extensively  employed  by  the  turner  and 
the  wood-engraver. .  It  is  of  two  kinds,  dis- 
tinguished as  Turkey  and  European  boxwood- 
The  former  is  imported  from  Constantinople, 


62  Our  Workshop. 

Smyrna,  and  the  Black  Sea.  In  size  it  is  very 
variable,  ranging  from  two  and  a  half  to  fourteen 
inches  diameter.  The  colour  is  generally  a  deep 
yellow,  sometimes  shaded  with  orange. 

Large  quantities  of  boxwood  are  consumed  in 
the  construction  of  rules,  scales,  and  blocks  for 
engravers,  who  employ  it  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
other  woods. 

The  European  boxwood  does  not  attain  so 
large  a  growth,  is  more  curly,  softer,  and  paler 
than  the  Turkish.  Its  usual  size  is  from  about 
one  to  five  inches  in  diameter.  Being  stronger 
than  the  Turkish  box,  it  is  better  for  lathe- 
chucks,  and  will  bear  more  rough  usage. 

Ebony. — Of  this  wood  there  are  three  varie- 
ties, which  are  usually  distinguished  by  the 
names  of  the  countries  whence  they  are  ex- 
ported. 

The  best  and  most  costly  of  the  three  is  a 
native  of  the  Mauritius.  It  is  the  blackest  and 
hardest,  but,  unfortunately,  the  most  unsound  of 
the  species.  The  East  Indian  is  the  next  in 
order;  it  is  less  wasteful,  but  inferior  to  the  first 
in  grain  and  colour.  The  African,  which  is  the 
last  in  the  list,  is  the  least  wasteful,  but  it  is 
decidedly  very  poor  in  colour,  and  porous  in  the 
grain. 

Ebony    is    almost     exclusively    employed    for 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  63 

turning  and  ornamental  work;  flutes,  the  keys 
of  pianofortes,  door-handles,  and  many  similar 
articles  are  manufactured  from  it. 

Lime-tree  is  a  clean  and  light- coloured  wood, 
and  quite  as  easily  worked  as  deal.  It  re- 
quires to  be  carefully  seasoned,  otherwise  it  is 
very  liable  to  twist  and  warp,  more  so  than 
pine.  Curriers,  shoemakers,  &c.,  use  it  for  their 
cutting-boards,  as  it  does  not  influence  the 
course  of  the  knife.  It  is  technically  said  to  be 
"without  grain,"  as  it  may  be  cut  with  almost 
equal  facility  in  every  direction.  Lime-tree  is 
peculiarly  free  from  knots,  and,  owing  to  its 
evenness  of  texture,  is  very  suitable  for  carved 
works.  It  enters  largely  into  the  construction 
of  pianofortes  and  other  musical  instruments. 

Pear-tree  is  a  brown  wood,  much  used  by  the 
Tunbridge  turner.  In  many  of  its  properties  it 
is  similar  to  lime-tree,  but  harder  and  tougher. 
It  is  largely  employed  for  carved  works,  and  the 
engraved  blocks  for  calico-printing. 

Sycamore  is  another  of  the  light- coloured 
woods.  When  young,  it  is  of  a  delicate  silky 
white,  which  changes  into  a  pale  brown  as  the 
timber  becomes  old.  The  wood  is  strongest 
when  the  colour  is  in  the  intermediate  stage. 


64 


Our  Workshop. 


Some  pieces  are  beautifully  mottled,  and  are  es- 
teemed by  the  cabinet-maker  in  the  construction 
of  fancy  furniture.  The  plain  kinds  are  made 
into  many  articles  of  domestic  utility,  such  as 
presses,  dairy  utensils,  &c.  It  is  also  a  particu- 
larly good  material  of  which  to  make  screws. 

TABULAE    VIEW    OF    SOME    OF    THE    WOODS 
IN  COMMON  USE. 


House  Carpentry. 
Deal 
Oak. 
Pine. 
Sweet  Chestnut. 

Strong  Framing,  &c. 

Oak. 

Ash. 

Beech. 

Birch. 

Mahogany. 

Wet  Works,  as  Piles, 
Foundations,  &c. 

Elm. 
Oak. 
Beech. 
Alder. 


Joinery  and  Cabinet 

Work. 
Beech. 
Birch. 
Cedar. 
Pine. 

Furniture. 

Mahogany. 

Kosewood. 

Satinwood. 

Sandalwood. 

Walnut. 

Maple. 

Black  Ebony. 

Amboyna. 

Foundry  Patterns. 
Alder. 
Deal. 

Mahogany. 
Pine. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


65 


For  Turnery  (common). 

Ornamental  Turning. 

Alder. 

Amboyna, 

Aps. 

Beefwood. 

Beech  ) 

Black  Ebony. 

Birch  J  SmalL 

Boxwood. 

Oak. 

Bulletwood. 

Elm. 

Cocoawood. 

Pine. 

Coromandel. 

Sycamore           \  WWte 

Lignum  Vitae. 

Holly                  (  Woods. 
Horse  Chestnut  ) 

Mahogany. 
Maple. 

Pear-tree             \  -o 

Mustaiba. 

Apple-tree          '  ™ 

Rosewood.    - 

Plum-tree           ) 

A  comprehensive  catalogue  of  the  "  Characters 
and  uses  of  the  Woods/'  will  be  found  in  the 
first  volume  of  HoltzapffeFs  "Mechanical  Mani- 
pulation." 


66  Our  Workshop. 


CHAPTER     IV. 

VAEIOUS    METHODS    OP   JOINING    TIMBEE. 

f  HE  practical  carpenter  displays  his  skill  by 
l  ^e  judicious  choice  of  that  form  of  con- 
nection  which  will,  with  the  least  waste 
of  material,  insure  the  firmest  junction 
of  the  pieces  to  be  united.  He  has,  moreover, 
carefully  to  consider  the  intensity  and  direction 
of  the  strains  tending  to  rupture  the  material 
and  separate  the  joints. 

The  amateur  being  principally  interested  in  the 
construction  of  light  works,  it  will  be  unnecessary 
to  investigate  very  deeply  the  formation  of  heavy 
framing :  we  shall  therefore  only  notice  a  few  of 
the  most  important  connections  in  general  use. 

When  it  is  necessary  permanently  to  lengthen 
a  beam,  another  of  similar  scantling  is  pieced  on 
to  it.  There  are  many  methods  of  " piecing " 
or  scarfing  timber,  and  every  carpenter  has  his 
own  nostrum,  which  he  considers  superior  to  all 
others.  Considerable  ingenuity  is  often  displayed 
in  the  various  connections  required  in  massive 
framings,  such  as  roofs,  &c.,  but  it  is  generally 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


67 


found  that  the  simpler  forms  of  attachment  are 
quite  as  strong  as  the  more  elaborate. 

The  simplest  and  probably  the  strongest  way 
of  piecing  a  beam,  is  to  lay  the  end  of  one  for 
a  certain  length  over  that  of  the  other,  and 
connect  them  firmly  by  bolts,  which  must  pass 
through  both  timbers.  This  form  of  scarfing  is 
certainly  clumsy  and  unartistic,  but  it  is  a  cheap 
and  serviceable  connection,  and  very  good  in 
situations  where  great  neatness  is  not  required. 

The  next,  and  probably  the  most  usual  kinds 
of  piecing,  are  shown  in  fig.  27.  In  A,  the  two 


Fig.  27. 

scantlings  to  be  united  are  "  halved  together " 
by  cutting  away  half  the  thickness  of  each  of 
them  for  the  length  of  the  joint,  so  that  wThen 
bolted  together  the  beam  may  appear  as  one 
unbroken  length.  The  iron  plates  are  only 
required  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  scarf  to 
keep  the  ends  of  the  respective  timbers  from 
springing  under  heavy  strains.  Tt  is  necessary 
I  2 


68 


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to  place  large  iron  washers  under  the  nuts,  to 
enable  us  to  screw  them  up  tightly  without  cutting 
into  the  wood. 

The  form  of  scarfing  represented  at  B  is  not 
so  capable  of  resisting  a  crushing  force  as  A, 
which  is  more  suitable  for  a  pillar  than  B,  owing 
to  the  support  derived  from  the  shoulders,  s  s. 
If  B  were  used  in  a  situation  where  it  had  to 
withstand  a  crushing  strain — which  tends  to  force 
both  ends  of  the  beam  towards  the  centre — the 
wedge-shaped  ends  would  be  liable  to  slide  on 


each  other,  and  the  thin  tongues,  t  t,  which 
confine  their  extremities,  would,  owing  to  the 
pressure,  be  apt  to  split  off. 

Another  method  of  scarfing  is  shown  in  fig.  28. 
In  C  the  timbers  are  "  halved  together "  in  a 
somewhat  similar  manner  to  A,  fig.  27,  but  the 
bolts  and  plates  are  omitted.  The  end  of  each 
beam  has  a  "  rebate/'  r  r,  formed  on  it,  which 
locks  into  a  corresponding  "  groove"  made  in  the 
shoulders.  Two  keys,  k  k,  having  a  slight  taper, 


Carp  entry  and  Joinery. 


69 


are  driven  in  to  draw  the  neighbouring  parts  of 
the  joint  closely  together.  One  key  in  the  centre 
would  be  equally  effective,  provided  it  were  made 
a  little  wider.  This  form  of  connection  is  capable 
of  resisting  either  a  crushing  or  a  tensile  strain, 
and  may  be  considered  the  best  of  the  more 
complicated  varieties  of  piecing.  D  is  not  so 
good,  having  the  same  defect  as  B,  fig.  27  ;  and 
if  it  were  used  as  a  pillar,  its  strength  would  be 
very  inferior,  owing  to  the  absence  of  bolts,  which 
are  almost  necessary  in  this  kind  of  joint. 

If  unassisted  by  iron  plates,  no  form  of  scarfed 
tie-beam  can  possess  more  than  one-third  of  the 


Fig.  29. 

strength  of  the  solid  beam;  and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  strength  of  any  joint  or 
framing  can  never  exceed  that  of  its  weakest  part. 
A  very  simple  kind  of  scarf  much  in  favour 
amongst  shipwrights  is  shown  in  fig.  29,  and  is 
termed  fishing  a  beam.  Two  beams  of  similar 
scantling  are  brought  end  to  end,  and  two  pieces 
of  wood,  each  about  half  the  thickness  of  the 
beams,  are  placed  on  their  opposite  sides;  the 
whole  is  then  strongly  bolted  together.  This 


70 


Our  Workshop. 


form  of  joint  is  very  strong,  especially  as  a  post, 
and  it  is  a  ready  and  effective  method  of  making 
repairs. 

Dovetail  connections,  as  shown  in  fig.  30,  and 
at  E  B,  fig.  31,  are  sometimes  employed  for 
posts,  but  they  cannot  be  recommended,  and 
should  not  be  used  without  plates  and  bolts,  if 


Fig.  30. 

the  weight  to  be  supported  is  great.  Dovetail 
joints  are  seldom  introduced  into  heavy  carpentry 
works,  even  when  the  grain  of  both  pieces 
runs  in  the  same  direction,  as  in  figs.  30  and 
31.  When  half  the  thickness  of  each  piece 


Fig.  31. 


is  removed,  as  at  R  R,  fig.  31  (left-hand  figure),, 
and  the  cut  surfaces  are  brought  together, 
it  is  called  a  lapped  joint.  If  the  timbers 
be  laid  so  that  the  grain  crosses  at  a  con- 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


71 


siderable  angle  the  dovetail  should  not  be  used, 
as  the  shrinkage  of  the  wood  will  cause  the 
joints  to  become  loose ;  therefore,  D,  fig.  32, 
would  be  objectionable  in  a  situation  where  the 
joint  was  subjected  to  even  a  moderate  strain. 
When  the  timbers  cross  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  they  may  be  united  by  "  halving,"  as 
shown  at  IP  H.  The  method  is  slightly  different 


Fig.  32. 

in  IF,  where  the  timbers  meet  at  the  ends,  and 
form  a  corner. 

When  one  timber  abuts  against  another  the 
joint  is  made  as  shown  at  T,  in  fig.  32.  The  piece 
T  is  called  the  tenon,  and  the  hole,  m,  which  is 
to  receive  it  the  mortise.  The  tenon  must  fit  the 
mortise  closely,  and  its  shoulders  must  rest  fairly 
on  the  surface  of  the  wood  against  which  it 
abuts.  An  oak  pin  is  usually  driven  in  at  p,  to 


72 


Our  Workshop. 


secure  the  tenon,  as  it  is  liable  to  draw  back ;  the 
strain  should  tend  to  keep  the  shoulder  of  the 
tenon  in  contact  with  the  wood  in  which  the 
mortise  is  made. 

The     ordinary    form  .of    mortise   and   tenon 
employed   in   heavy   carpentry   is    shown   to    a 


Fig.  33. 


larger  scale  in  fig.  33.  The  tenon,  T,  should 
seldom  exceed  one-third  of  the  thickness  of 
the  stuff,,  otherwise  the  piece  containing 
the  mortise,  M,  will  be  weaker  at  that  part 


Fig.  34.— Tenon-saw. 


than  the  tenon.  The  endeavour  should  always 
be  to  balance  the  strength  of  the  two  parts, 
so  that,  if  subjected  to  a  severe  strain,  they 
would  yield  equally.  The  tenon  is  formed  by 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  73 

cutting  away  one-third  of  the  thickness  of  the 
timber  on  each  side  of  it,  and  as  the  work 
will  receive  no  further  finish  than  is  imparted 
by  the  tenon-saw  (fig.  34),  this  tool  must  be 
exceedingly  well  applied  to  insure  a  good  fit 
in  the  mortise.  The  method  of  cutting  the 
mortise  will  be  explained  hereafter. 

After  the  tenon  has  been  driven  home,  so  that 
the  shoulders,  s  s3,  bed  fairly  on  the  surface  of 
the  wood  around  the  mortise — in  which  they  will 
fail  if  all  the  parts  be  not  exactly  square — the 
hole,  p  p',  must  be  bored,  .but  rather  smaller 
than  it  will  ultimately  be  required.  The  tenon 
must  then  be  withdrawn  from  the  mortise,  and 
the  hole,  p'}  be  enlarged  to  the  proper  size  for 
the  pin ;  p  must  also  be  increased  to  the  same 
size,  but  its  centre  is  removed"  a  trifle  towards 
the  shoulders,  s  s' ,  so  that  when  the  tenon  is  re- 
inserted in  the  mortise,  the  holes,  p  p',  will  not 
exactly  tally.  The  discrepancy  should  be  very 
slight,  otherwise  the  tenon  may  be  split  when  the 
pin  is  driven  home.  By  setting  the  hole  in  the 
tenon  a  little  behind  that  in  the  mortise,  the  pin 
is  enabled  to  draw  the  tenon  forward  until  both 
the  holes  correspond,  when  the  shoulders,  6-  s' , 
will  bear  firmly  on  the  surface,  M. 

Sometimes  the  tenon  is  brought  boldly  through 
the  mortise,  and  the  pin  passed  through  its  ex- 
tremity. Square  pins  are  used  in  this  situation, 


74  Our  Workshop. 

being  considered  less  liable  to  split  the  end  of  the 
tenon.  If  the  end  of  the  tenon  be  chamfered  and 
the  workmanship  is  good,  this  form  of  joint  is 
not  unsightly,  and  is  frequently  introduced  in 
situations  where  the  joint  is  exposed  to  view. 

We  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  further  of  the 
formation  of  the  tenon  and  mortise,  the  dovetail, 
and  some  other  connections,  when  explaining  the 
use  of  the  tools  employed  by  the  joiner. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  75 


CHAPTER  V. 

SIMPLE    WORKS    IN   WOOD. 

flHEN  a  young  fellow  enters  a  carpenter's 
shop  as  an  apprentice  his  master  will 
give  him  plenty  of  hard  initiatory  work, 
which  may  seem  useless  and  irksome. 
He  will  be  required  to  rip  long  pieces  of  scantling 
for  hours  together,  and  will  be  kept  at  this  kind 
of  work  until  he  can  saw  tolerably  straight. 
Perhaps,  by  way  of  change,  he  may  be  allowed 
to  "  rough  plane  "  some  boards  for  coarse  works, 
in  which  little  accuracy  is  needed. 

If  the  apprentice  be  careful  and  work  hard,  he 
will  soon  be  relieved  of  the  first  drudgery,  and 
be  employed  on  a  better  class  of  work.  Before 
he  is  intrusted  with  anything  important  he  must 
assist  one  of  the  journeymen,  and  if  he  prove 
intelligent  and  painstaking,  he  will  soon  become 
a  skilled  workman. 

Thus  step  by  step,  beginning  at  the  lowest 
round  of  the  ladder,  must  mount  all  who  would 
achieve  real  success  in  any  undertaking.  One 
step  must  be  fully  mastered  before  the  next  is 


76  Our  Workshop. 

attempted,  otherwise  much,  that  would  have 
proved  of  great  value  remains  undiscovered. 

Amateurs  are  rarely  good  workmen,  because 
they  seldom  practise  sawing  and  planing  suffi- 
ciently to  become  expert. 

Many  people  imagine  that  complete  command 
of  the  saw  and  the  plane  may  be  acquired  by 
repairing  a  piece  of  furniture,  making  a  box,  and 
similar  odd  jobs,  which,  though  useful  in  their 
way,  can  afford  but  little  scope  for  advancement 
in  the  joiner' s  craft. 

The  amateur  joiner  has  only  a  narrow  field  for 
practice,  and  unless  he  make  a  bold  stroke,  and 
combine  cabinet -making,  his  tools  will  often 
.contract  the  rust  of  idleness. 

A  friend  of  the  author  has  proved  himself  a 
.clever  amateur  cabinet-maker,  and  can  show 
several  pieces  of  furniture  which  are  exceedingly 
'Creditable  specimens  of  art ;  and  one  article — a 
sideboard — deserves  special  mention,  being  a 
handsome  and  well  -  finished  sample  of  good 
workmanship. 

We  only  mention  this  circumstance  to  show 
that  amateurs  may,  if  they  persevere,  become 
skilled  mechanics.  That  "practice  makes  per- 
fect "  is  only  true  of  thoughtful  practice.  Many 
men  are  engaged  all  their  lives  at  one  class  of 
-work,  and  yet  never  excel.  Surely  this  cannot 
be  for  want,  of  practice  ;  110,  it  is  reflection  in 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  77 

which  they  are  deficient.  The  intelligent  and 
thoughtful  man  feels  a  pleasure  in  his  work,  and 
is  always  striving  to  raise  his  art  to  still  higher 
perfection  by  improving  the  means  at  his  com- 
mand, and  by  endeavouring  to  devise  better  and 
quicker  ways  of  doing  the  work. 

If  the  plank  be  required  for  work  in  which 
great  accuracy  is  essential,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  be  particularly  careful  when  planing  the 
second  side  to  make  it  exactly  parallel  to  the 
first ;  otherwise  the  plank  will  not  be  of  uniform 
thickness  throughout.  The  eye  of  a  skilled  work- 
man may  be  sufficiently  "  true  "  or  "  straight " 
to  enable  him  to  plane  up  a  small  piece  of  stuff 
without  the  assistance  of  a  line  or  other  artificial 
guide.  A  beginner,  however,  must  not  attempt 
to  work  in  this  way,  or  he  will  invariably  spoil 
whatever  he  undertakes.  Next  to  the  square, 
the  marking-gauge  is  the  workman's  best  safe- 
guard ;  the  straight-edge  should  also  be  at  hand, 
its  aid  being  indispensable  for  testing  the  truth 
of  extensive  flat  surfaces,  as  well  as  long  narrow 
ones. 

After  the  rough  outside  of  the  plank  has  been 
removed,  the  surface  should  be  "  tried  up/'  or 
generally  planed  over  with  the  trying-plane,  to 
make  it  tolerably  flat.  If  the  longitudinal  edges 
of  the  plank  be  very  uneven,  they  must  also  be 
"roughly  shot/'  The  marking-gauge  must  be 


78  .      Our  Workshop. 

adjusted  to  the  thickness  to  which  the  work  is 
to  be  planed.  If  the  wood  will  "hold  up,"  say 
to  one  inch  thick,  the  head  of  the  gauge  must  be 
set  back  one  inch  from  the  scoring  point.  The 
plank  must  be  raised  >and  supported  on  one  edge, 
the  head  of  the  gauge  being  forcibly  applied  to, 
and  moved  along,  the  true  surface,  while  the 
scoring  point  leaves  a  clear  line  on  the  uppermost 
edge,  and  as  much  below  the  rough  untouched 
surface  as  the  substance  of  the  work  now  ex- 
ceeds the  finished  thickness  to  which  the  gauge 
is  set.  Both  the  longitudinal  edges  must  be 
gauged,  and  the  ends  also,  if  they  be  tolerably 
straight  and  smooth.  If  the  second  side  be  now 
carefully  planed  down  to  the  lines,  we  shall  have 
a  plank  of  uniform  thickness.  While  planing 
the  last  side,  the  straight-edge  must  be  frequently 
applied  across  the  work  to  give  us  timely  notice, 
if  we  be  removing  too  much  in  the  centre.  It  is 
a  safe  plan  to  plane  down  the  surface  near  the 
edges  to  within  a  little  of  the  gauge-lines,  and 
then  to  remove  the  stuff  towards  the  centre,  re- 
membering to  use  the  straight  edge  frequently  in 
the  cross  direction,  and  also  occasionally  length- 
wise. When  the  second  side  has  been  made  as 
true  as  the  first,  and  the  thickness  is  found  to  be 
uniform,  the  edges  and  the  ends  must  be  com- 
pleted as  before  explained. 

The  process  is   somewhat  different  for  thick 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  79 

works.  After  the  first  side  has  been  "  tried  up/' 
one  of  the  edges  is  planed  at  right  angles  to  it, 
the  truth  being  tested  by  the  square,  the  stock 
of  which  is  applied  to  the  first  side,  and  the  blade 
to  the  edge.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  make 
the  edge  or  right-angled  side — as  it  may  be  con- 
sidered in  thick  work — exactly  square  to  the 
first,  as  these  two  surfaces  are  required  to  serve 
as  the  foundations  from  which  the  remaining 
sides  are  to  be  wrought.  The  gauge  must  now 
be  set  to  the  finished  thickness  or  the  distance 
which  is  to  exist  between  the  first  side  and  the 
one  opposite  or  parallel  to  it. 

The  first  side,  which  we  will  call  A,  and  the 
adjacent  edge  or  right-angled  side,  B,  should  be 
marked  by  a  pencil  line  extending  from  one  to 
the  other,  that  we  may  distinguish  them  from  the 
two  remaining  surfaces,  C  and  D,  which  are  to 
be  wrought  from  them.  The  second  side,  C, 
when  planed  to  within  a  little  of  the  gauge-lines, 
may  be  tested  by  the  square,  the  stock  resting  on 
the  edge,  B,  and  the  blade  on  C.  The  square 
must  be  applied  at  short  intervals  as  the  work 
approaches  towards  completion,  and  should  be 
moved  over  the  entire  surface,  as  some  parts  may 
be  out  of  square,  though  closely  bordering  on 
others  which  are  true. 

The  sides,  A,  B,  and  C,  are  now  supposed  to  be 
finished  ;  it  therefore  only  remains  to  operate  on 


80  Our  Workshop. 

D  to  complete  the  work.  The  edge  or  fourth 
side,  D,  might  be  planed  at  right  angles  to  the 
first  side,,  A,  by  the  assistance  of  the  square,  if  it 
were  not  required  to  be  also  parallel  to  the 
second  side,  B. 

We  made  A  and  C  parallel  to  each  other ;  the 
same  relation  must  therefore  exist  between  B 
and  D,  to  render  the  work  correct.  The  marking- 
gauge  must  be  set  to  the  new  measure,  the  width 
or  distance  required  between  the  edges — the 
head  being  rubbed  against  B,  while  the  point 
marks  out  the  new  surface,  D.  Two  lines  must 
be  scored — one  on  A,  the  other  on  C — to  guide 
us  in  planing  the  edge  square  to  them. 

If  the  work  has  been  properly  executed,  the 
sides  will  prove  equally  true  when  tried  by  the 
square  in  any  direction.  Sometimes  the  several 
surfaces  will  appear  true  in  the  order  of  their 
formation,  but  on  reversing  the  test 'they  will  no 
longer  agree.  This  want  of  accuracy  can  occa- 
sionally be  traced  to  the  square,  which  may  not 
be  in  good  order,  but  more  frequently  the  fault 
rests  with  the  workman. 

Squaring  and  planing-up  works  are  not  easy 
of  accomplishment,  and  even  the  simplest  works 
require  considerable  skill  to  achieve  satisfactorily, 
and  constant  practice  is  necessary  to  insure 
success. 

We   must    suppose   our   pupils  to    have   only 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  81 

commenced  their  apprenticeship,  and  shall 
therefore  begin  with  the  mere  rudiments  of  the 
joiner's  art. 

The  construction  of  a  plain  deal  box  is  pro- 
bably the  simplest  work  our  pupils  could  select 
for  their  first  attempt.  The  wood  for  the  "  car- 
case "  of  the  box  having  been  cut  out  and  planed 
in  accordance  with  the  directions  already  given, 
the  sides  may  now  be  glued  or  nailed  together. 
Before  detailing  the  method  of  "  glueing  up " 
works,  however,  a  few  words  respecting  the 
choice  of  the  glue  may  be  useful  to  our  readers. 

The  best  glue  is  prepared  from  parings  of  the 
hides  of  animals,  previously  to  the  process  of 
tanning.  The  quality  of  the  glue  may  be 
tested  in  several  ways.  The  superior  kinds  are 
of  a  pale  brown  colour,  and  devoid  of  taste  or 
smell.  When  held  between  the  eye  and  the 
light  the  cake  of  glue  should  appear  semi-trans- 
parent, and  entirely  free  from  cloudy  or  black 
spots,  which  indicate  the  presence  of  foreign 
matter.  If  a  large  quantity  of  glue  is  to  be  pur- 
chased, it  will  be  advisable  to  take  a  sample,  and 
subject  it  to  a  severe  trial.  The  glue  must  be 
broken  into  small  pieces,  and  placed  in  a  vessel 
with  sufficient  cold  water  to  cover  it.  If,  after 
the  lapse  of  three  or  four  days,  the  glue  swell 
powerfully  without  melting,  it  may  be  considered 
the  best  quality. 


82  Our  Workshop.   • 

In  dry  weather  a  cake  of  glue  is  generally 
crisp  and  hard,  but  it  is  liable  to  become  soft  in 
a  moist  atmosphere.  If  the  glue  be  soft  in  dry 
weather  it  should  be  rejected,  being  probably  of 
inferior  quality. 

The  kettle  in  which  the  glue  is  melted  for  use 
consists  of  two  vessels,  one  within  the  other,  a 
certain  space  existing  between  them  for  a  water- 
bath  to  determine  the  temperature,  which  can 
never  exceed  that  of  boiling  water.  This  provi- 
sion is  absolutely  necessary  to  save  the  glue  from 
being  unduly  heated  or  burnt,  whereby  its  adhe- 
sive properties  would  be  destroyed. 

It,  is  a  good  plan  to  allow  the  glue  to  soak  in 
cold  water  for  several  hours  before  placing  the 
kettle  on  the  fire.  The  kettle  must  not  be 
put  on  a  fierce  fire,  but  should  be  suffered  to 
simmer  gently  on  the  hob,  until  the  glue  is 
thoroughly  melted.  A  cover  should  be  provided 
to  exclude  the  dust,  a  notch  being  made  in  the 
edge  for  a  stick  or  brush,  with  which  the  glue 
may  be  occasionally  stirred.  If  too  thick,  a 
little  of  the  hot  water  contained  in  the  larger 
vessel  may  be  added  to  the  glue,  which  should 
be  sufficiently  thin  to  run  in  a  fine  stream  from 
the  brush.  Shortly  before  removing  the  kettle 
the  water  may  be  allowed  to  boil  gently,  to 
ensure  the  glue  being  of  sufficiently  high  tem- 
perature to  remain  fluid  until  the  neighbouring 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  83 

portions  of  the  work  to  be  united  are,  properly 
adjusted.  The  strength  of  common  glue  may  be 
somewhat  increased  by  adding  a  small  portion  of 
finely-powdered  chalk,  which  must  be  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  it.  Another  preparation 
which  will  resist  moisture  is  made  by  melting 
one  pound  of  the  best  glue  in  two  quarts  of 
skimmed  milk. 

A  very  strong  glue  of  great  service  for  uniting 
small  mouldings  and  other  separate  portions  of 
work  which  are  liable,  owing  to  their  small  sur- 
face, to  become  detached  from  the  main  body, 
may  be  made  thus  : — Dissolve  one  ounce  of  the 
best  isinglass,  by  gen  tie  heat,  in  a  pint  of  water, 
and  strain  it  through  a  piece  of  cloth.  The 
isinglass  must  now  be  placed  in  a  glue-kettle 
with  the  best  cake  glue,  which  has  been  soaking 
for  twenty-four  hours  in  cold  water.  A  gill  of  the 
strongest  vinegar  must  be  added,  and  the  whole 
allowed  to  melt  slowly  near  the  fire.  The  mix- 
ture must  be  stirred  occasionally  to  ensure  the 
complete  incorporation  of  the  ingredients.  The 
glue  may  be  suffered  to  boil  up  once,  after  which 
the  impurities  must  be  strained  off,  and  the 
cement  left  to  cool.  If  the  kettle  be  wanted  for 
ordinary  glue,  the  "  strong  glue"  may  be  poured 
on  a  slab  of  stone  to  cool,  after  which  the  cake  so 
formed  can  be  broken  into  pieces  of  a  convenient 
size  for  use. 

G    2 


84  Our  Workshop. 

Having  ascertained  that  the  four  pieces  of 
which  the  "  carcase  "  of  the  box  is  to  be  con- 
structed are  quite  square,  and  fit  truly  to  each 
other,  they  must  be  marked,  so  that  their  proper 
relationship  may  be  known  when  "  glueing  up  " 
is  commenced. 

To  ensure  a  good  and  firm  joint  it  is  necessary 
to  have  the  glue  very  fluid,  and  as  hot  as  the 
water-bath  of  the  kettle  can  make  it.  It  is  also 
of  equal  importance  to  bring  the  pieces  which  are 
to  be  united  as  nearly  in  contact  as  possible, 
thereby  excluding  the  superabundant  cement 
which  would  otherwise  prevent  the  close  union 
of  the  parts. 

If  the  top  of  the  bench  be  uneven  a  flat  board 
should  be  placed  on  it,  otherwise  some  difficulty 
may  be  experienced  in  glueing  the  box  together 
truly  square.  One  of  the  sides  of  the  "  carcase" 
must  be  laid  on  the  board  with  the  inner  side 
upwards,  and  the  end  pieces,  which  have 
respectively  been  glued  on  one  extremity,  are 
rubbed  firmly  down  on  it,  in  order  to  exclude 
the  surplus  glue  and  bring  the  wood  into  close 
contact.  The  opposite  extremities  of  the  ends 
are  next  glued,  and  the  second  side  is  pressed 
forcibly  upon  them. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  cross-grain  of  the 
end  pieces  quickly  absorbs  the  glue,  therefore  its 
application  must  be  repeated  several  times  before 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  85 

the  usual  quantity  will  remain  on  the  surface. 
Glue  will  never  hold  so  strongly  in  the  cross  as 
in  the  length-way  of  the  grain,  consequently 
little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  strength  of  a 
box  in  which  the  cross-grain  of  the  end  pieces  is 
merely  glued  to  the  sides. 

The  four  sides  of  the  box  or  ' e  carcase  "  being 
"  glued  up/'  it  must  be  turned  over  to  ascertain 
if  the  edges  of  the  side  and  end  pieces  rest 
fairly  on  the  board ;  and  if  at  all  distorted  the 
"carcase"  must  be  corrected  as  quickly  as 
possible,  while  the  glue  is  soft,  as  any  disturbance 
after  the  glue  begins  to  set  will  be  fatal  to  the 
soundness  of  the  joint.  The  work  may  be  bound 
together  more  closely  by  screw- clamps,  which 
will  also  tend  to  preserve  its  shape  while  drying. 
After  the  clamps  have  been  adjusted  the  truth  of 
the  work  must  be  again  tested,  not  only  on  the 
edges,  but  also  by  a  square  applied  from  the 
sides,  to  discover  if  the  ends  be  at  right  angles 
to  them.  Before  leaving  the  work  to  dry,  the 
waste  glue  which  has  oozed  out  at  the  joints 
should  be  removed  by  a  bit  of  sponge  slightly 
moistened  with  the  hot  water  in  the  kettle.  If 
the  waste  glue  were  allowed  to  harden,  it  would 
•not  only  be  difficult  to  remove,  but  would 
stain  the  work  and  give  it  an  unworkmanlike 
appearance. 

The  work  must  not  be  disturbed  for  at  least 


86  Our  Workshop. 

four-and-twenty  hours,  and  if  the  weather  be 
damp,  a  longer  period  should  be  allowed. 

When  the  glue  is  thoroughly  hard  the  clamps 
may  be  removed  and  the  bottom  of  the  box 
attached.  If,  on  examination,  the  edges  of  the 
' c  carcase  "  prove  not  exactly  ' '  fair,,"  they  must 
be  dressed  carefully  by  the  smoothing-plane, 
until  the  bottom  fits  them  closely  all  round. 

Glueing  on  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  merely  a 
repetition  of  the  process  we  have  just  described. 
It  may  be  found  more  convenient  to  keep  the 
bottom  closely  in  contact  with  the  "  carcase  " 
while  the  glue  is  drying,  by  a  couple  of  weights 
instead  of  the  screw-clamps  which  were  used  for 
the  sides.  After  the  carcase  has  been  rubbed 
down  firmly  on  the  bottom  and  the  waste  glue 
removed,  the  box  may  either  be  turned  upside 
down,  so  that  the  weights  may  be  placed  on  the 
bottom,  or,  being  undisturbed,  the  weights  may 
be  supported  by  a  piece  of  wood  placed  on  the 
box  as  a  temporary  cover. 

As  the  box,  however  carefully  glued  together, 
will  require  to  be  finally  "finished  off"  by  the 
smoothing-plane,,  it  will  somewhat  facilitate  the 
process  to  allow  the  extremities  of  the  side 
pieces  to  project  a  very  small  amount  beyond  the 
ends.  The  bottom  may  also  with  advantage  be 
a  trifle  larger  than  the  exterior  dimensions  of  the 
carcase.  If  the  work  be  quite  true,  and  the 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  87 

glueing  is  well  performed,  no  perceptible  pro- 
vision for  the  final  finish  will  be  required. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  finishing  to 
avoid  "  spalling  off  the  wood  when  planing  the 
cross-grain  ends  of  the  side  pieces.  The  plane 
must  be  used  obliquely,  and  not  for  the  entire 
length  or  depth  of  the  ends,  the  endeavour  being 
to  work  alternately  from  the  upper  and  lower 
edges  towards  the  middle,  where  the  opposite 
cuts  will  meet  and  balance  each  other. 

If  we  require  a  board  of  considerable  width,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  glue  two  or  more  narrow 
planks  edge  to  edge.  To  do  this  successfully  the 
edges  of  the  respective  planks  which  are  to  be 
united  must  be  exactly  straight  and  square  across. 
When  one  of  the  edges  has  been  carefully  shot 
according  to  the  indications  of  the  "  straight- 
edge," it  may  in  its  turn  be  used  as  a  straight- 
edge in  working  the  edge  of  the  plank  with  which 
it  is  to  be  united.  If  a  little  chalk  be  rubbed 
evenly  all  over  the  true  edge,  a  small  portion  of 
the  white  powder  will  be  deposited  on  the 
prominent  points  of  the  work,  if  the  former  be 
slightly  moved  backwards  and  forwards  over  the 
latter  in  the  direction  of  its  length.  By  removing 
the  material  where  the  chalk  has  adhered  we 
shall  soon  bring  the  edge  of  the  second  plank 
into  close  contact  with  that  of  the  first. 

When  about  to  glue  the  boards  together  one  of 


88  Our  Workshop. 

the  pieces  must  be  fixed  vertically  in  the  chops 
of  the  bench,,  the  lower  end  being  raised  a  few 
inches  from  the  floor.  The  second  plank  must 
also  be  placed  in  an  upright  position,,  and  sup- 
ported by  a  block  of  wood  at  the  same  height  as 
the  first,  against  which  it  is  allowed  to  rest 
obliquely,  so  that  the  edges  to  be  glued  may 
form  a  slight  angle  with  each  other.  The  glue- 
brush  is  now  run  up  and  down  the  angle  formed 
by  the  edges  of  the  boards,  and  when  the  cement 
has  been  thoroughly  worked  into  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  the  edge  of  the  second  plank  must  be 
brought  in  contact  with  that  of  the  first,  which 
is  firmly  secured  in  chops  of  the  bench.  The 
second  board,  which  is  held  by  the  joiner,  must 
be  pressed  and  rubbed  forcibly  against  the  first 
until  the  joint  begins  to  feel  stiff  under  the  hand, 
when  the  plank  must  be  brought  into  its  proper 
position.  A  straight-edge  should  be  applied 
across  the  face  of  the  board  to  test  its  accuracy 
before  removing  it  from  the  bench.  If  the  edges 
which  we  have  just  glued  together  be  not  exactly 
square  across,  the  board  will  prove  rounding  on 
one  side  and  hollow  on  the  other.  A  similar  dis- 
crepancy may  be  occasioned  by  the  respective 
edges  of  the  planks  not  "  bedding  "  fairly  on  each 
other.  A  critical  examination  of  each  side  of  the 
board  will  enable  us  to  discover  any  such  fault, 
which  may  be  rectified  by  pressing  the  plank  so 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  89 

as  to  close  tlie  open  joint.  If  the  joint  appear 
quite  sound,  or  if  the  closing  of  a  gap  fail  to 
make  the  work  flat,  the  joint  must  be  separated 
and  rectified  by  the  plane.  As  such  a  proceeding 
would  be  very  unsatisfactory,  and  waste  much 
time,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  when 
shooting  the  edges  to  ensure  their  accuracy.  If 
the  work  be  accurate,  the  joint  must  be  sponged 
over  to  remove  the  waste  glue,  and  after  allowing 
a  few  minutes  for  the  glue  to  set,  the  board  may 
be  carefully  removed  from  the '  bench  by  two 
people,  and  rested  in  an  inclined  position  against 
the  wall  of  the  workshop. 

When  a  truly  flat  board  of  considerable  width 
is  required  it  would  be  unwise  to  employ  one 
plank,  even  supposing  we  could  find  a  piece  of 
sufficiently  large  growth  suitable  for  our  purpose. 
We  have  already  stated  that  the  woods  are  very 
liable  to  warp  and  become  otherwise  distorted  in 
the  cross-way  of  the  grain,  consequently  little 
dependence  can  be  placed  on  the  material  in  this 
direction.  It  should  not,  therefore,  if  unassisted, 
be  employed  of  great  width  in  works  where  per- 
manence of  form  is  important.  It  will  frequently 
be  found  that  the  plank  becomes  convex  on  the 
side  which  was  towards  the  centre  of  the  tree, 
provided  both  sides  are  subjected  to  similar 
conditions. 

If  the  wide  plank  be  cat  into  several  narrow 


90  Our  Workshop. 

ones  and  the  alternate  pieces  be  reversed,  and 
then  glued  up  edge  to  edge,  the  wide  plank  thus 
formed  will  retain  its  shape  much  better  than  it 
could  have  done  in  its  natural  state.  A  wide 
plank  not  artificially  formed  would  become  curved, 
like  a  large  bow,  one  side  being  convex  and  the 
other  concave.  But  in  a  "  made-up  plank/'  the 
component  parts  being  comparatively  narrow,  the 
curvature  is  shorter,  and  changing  the  sides  of 
the  alternate  pieces  has  the  effect  of  imparting  a 
slightly  serpentine  outline  instead  of  a  large  curve 
to  the  surface  of  the  work,  if  it  become  warped. 

Since  the  direction  in  which  the  wood  is 
employed  is  of  so  much  importance,  it  may  be 
observed  that  those  parts  upon  which  the  most 
reliance  is  placed  to  retain  the  work  in  shape 
should  always  be  constructed  in  the  length-way 
of  the  grain.  For  instance,  the  length  and  width 
of  a  box  are  usually  much  greater  than  its  depth, 
and  as  the  true  figure  of  the  work  depends  on  the 
permanence  of  the  side  and  end  pieces,  their 
longest  directions  must  be  made  with  the  grain. 
If  all  the  dimensions  of  the  box  be  equal,  the 
length-way  of  the  grain  must  still  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  depth  of  the  box.  The  grain  of  the 
end  pieces  must  always  be  in  the  same  direction, 
or  plain,  as  that  of  the  sides  ;  the  combination  of 
the  four  pieces  will  then  mutually  support  and 
retain  each  other  in  shape. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


91 


The  liability  to  warp  is  not  removed  by  chang- 
ing the  alternate  sides  of  the  narrow  pieces  or 
strips  into  which  the  wide  plank  was  divided. 


Fig:.  35. 


and  although  the  evil  may  be  mitigated  to  some 
extent  by  this  treatment,  yet  we  must  resort  to  the 
more  powerful  restraints  of  damps  to  retain  the 


92  Oar  Workshop, 

work  in  shape.  The  simplest  forms  of  clamp  are 
shown  in  fig.  35,  which  may  be  supposed  to  re- 
present the  ordinary  drawing-board  used  by 
mechanical  draughtsmen.  The  board  is  con- 
structed of  two  pine  planks,  A  B,  free  from 
knots,  and  thoroughly  seasoned.  The  edges 
which  are  to  be  united  must  be  very  truly  planed, 
and  a  shallow  groove  formed  in  each  for  the  recep- 
tion of  a  thin  strip  of  wood,  t,  called  a  slip- 
feather,  which  materially  strengthens  the  joint. 
The  groove  cannot  be  satisfactorily  made  with- 
out a  grooving -plane,  of  which  we  shall  speak 
presently.  In  the  absence  of  this  tool  the  joint 
may  be  sufficiently  well  made  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, by  simply  glueing  the  edges  together. 

When  the  glue  is  thoroughly  hard,  the  board 
must  be  planed  upon  the  sides  and  edges.  The 
clamp,  C  C,  which  is  made  of  a  well-seasoned 
straight- grained  piece  of  "  stuff "  is  fastened  by 
screws  across  the  grain  of  the  board  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  end.  It  is  always  necessary  to 
have  two  clamps — one  near  each  extremity  of  the 
board, — and  if  the  length  of  the  latter  be  consider- 
able, a  third  clamp  may  be  required  in  the  centre. 
As  the  board  is  liable  to  shrink  or  become  nar- 
rower, it  is  subjected  to  a  considerable  strain  by 
being  rigidly  fixed  to  the  clamp,  C  C,  which  is 
incapable  of  shrinking  in  the  direction  of  its 
length.  The  clamp  being  unable  to  yield  in  the 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  93- 

length-way  of  the  grain,  it  can  afford  no  liberty 
to  the  cross-grained  wood  of  the  board,  which  is 
apt  to  split  and  tear  away  from  the  fastenings  by 
which  it  is  confined. 

A  better  kind  of  clamp  which  effectually  pre- 
serves the  truth  of  the  board,  and  at  the  same 
time  allows  it  to  contract  without  restraint,  is 
seen  at  D  D.  Instead  of  securing  the  clamps 
by  screws  or  other  rigid  connections,  a  dovetail, 
dy  is  formed  on  the  side  next  the  board,  in 
which  latter  is  made  a  corresponding  dovetail 
groove.  The  dovetail  on  the  clamp  and  the 
groove  in  the  board  are  made  with  a  slight  taper 
in  the  length-way  to  enable  the  clamp  to  draw 
itself  tight  when  driven  forward.  The  board  is 
quite  free  to  shrink  throughout  the  entire  length 
of  the  dovetail,  and  the  truth  of  the  surface  is 
also  strictly  maintained.  If  the  shrinking  of  the 
board  be  so  considerable  as  to  loosen  the 'clamp, 
it  may  be  immediately  tightened  by  a  few  light 
blows  of  a  hammer  on  the  wide  end  of  the  dove- 
tail. This  form  of  clamp  is  very  superior  to  the 
one  first  named,  but  it  is  much  more  difficult  to 
make ;  for  if  the  dovetail  be  badly  fitted,  it  will 
fail  to  afford  the  requisite  support  to  the  board. 
The  clamp,  C  C,  is  a  very  ready  and  convenient 
device  for  strengthening  the  covers,  and  also  the 
bottoms  and  sides  of  rough  boxes  or  packing- 
cases. 


94 


Our  Workshop. 


Fig.  36  represents  a  wide  board  formed  by 
narrow  strips  glued  edge  to  edge.  This  board 
is  strengthened  by  a  clamp,,  E  E,  which  is 
secured  to  the  end  instead  of  the  side.  The 
ends  of  the  board  (only  one  is  shown)  are  related 
on  each  side  to  form  the  tongue,  T,  which  should 
be  one-third  of  the  thickness  of  the  material. 


Fig.  36. 

A  groove  is  planed  in  the  edge  of  the  clanip, 
E  E,  to  receive  the  tongue,  which  should  fit  it 
moderately  tight.  If  there  be  any  doubt 
respecting  the  complete  seasoning  of  the  wood 
of  which  the  board  is  constructed,  it  would  be 
imprudent  to  glue  the  clamp  to  the  board,  except 
in  the  middle  of  its  length.  The  shrinking  of  the 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  95 

pieces  on  either  side  of  tlie  middle  strip  would 
occasion  sufficient  contraction  in  the  width  of 
the  board  to  cause  it  to  separate  from  the  glue 
which  bound  it  to  the  clamp.  This  description 
of  clamp  is  much  used  in  cabinet-work,  and  as 
the  seasoning  is  then  tolerably  complete,  the 
work  may  be  glued  throughout  with  little  fear  of 
subsequent  failure. 

This  clamp  is  frequently  employed  for  strength- 
ening and  retaining  in  shape  the  light  covers  of 
boxes,  office  writing-desks,  &c.  The  board,  W, 
will  not  be  required  of  large  dimensions  for  the 
purposes  named;  and  if  mahogany  be  used,  it 
will  be  unnecessary  to"  "  make  up"  by  glueing 
strips  together.  If  a  surface  of  several  feet  in 
extent  be  required,  a  frame  consisting  of  four  or 
more  parts  is  constructed,  and  small  thin  boards, 
called  panels,  are  introduced  to  fill  the  vacancies 
between  the  several  members  of  the  frame.  The 
doors  and  shutters  of  a  house  are  examples  of 
this  description  of  framing,  which  is  in  very 
general  use.  All  the  vertical  or  longest  pieces  of 
the  frame  are  called  the  styles,  and  the  cross  bars 
which  connect  them  the  rails. 

The  extremities  of  the  rails  are  usually  formed 
into  tenons,  which  lodge  in  mortises  made  in  the 
styles.  A  groove  for  the  reception  of  the  panel 
is  worked  in  the  styles  and  rails.  The  panel 
should  not  fit  the  groove  too  closely,  or  it  will 


96  Our  Workshop. 

not  have  sufficient  liberty  for  expansion  and  con- 
traction, which,  if  resisted,  will  cause  the  wood 
to  split.  The  mouldings,  when  not  worked  out 
of  the  solid,  are  secured  to  the  styles  and  rails, 
and  the  panels  are  still  unrestrained. 

The  formation  of  framed  and  panelled  works 
can  scarcely  be  considered  as  easy  examples  of 
joinery;  we  must  therefore  reserve  this  subject 
for  future  investigation. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  glue  a  narrow  strip  on 
the  edge  of  a  board  to  receive  a  moulding,  &c., 
in  which  case  it  is  better  to  make  the  addition 
wider  than  it  will  ultimately  be  required,  and 
when  the  glue  is  hard,  to  cut  off  the  excess  of 
material.  By  this  means  we  are  enabled  to 
make  a  sounder  joint,  as  the  strip  is  less  liable  to 
spring  up  at  the  ends,  if  its  width  be  equal  to 
about  three  or  four  times  its  thickness. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  form  a  large 
curve  or  sweep  either  by  bending  the  wood,  or 
by  cutting  it  to  the  required  shape.  If  the  sweep 
be  large,  bending  the  material  is  the  most  econo- 
mical process.  The  simplest  but  certainly  not 
the  strongest  method  of  bending  is  performed  by 
making  several  kerfs  with  the  tenon-saw  along 
the  edge  which  is  required  to  yield  or  stretch. 
The  kerfs  must  be  equi-distant  and  of  uniform 
depth,  and  care  must  be  taken  when  bending  not 
to  cripple  the  work  by  applying  too  much  force. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  97 

When  the  desired  curve  is  obtained,  the  ends  of 
the  sweep  should  be  confined  by  securing  them 
to  the  board  on  which  the  work  must  be  laid 
for  glueing.  The  edge  in  which  the  saw  kerfs 
were  made  being  now  convex,  the  kerfs  will  be 
found  much  wider  than  they  were  previously  to 
bending  the  wood.  The  strength  of  the  work 
may  be  considerably  increased  by  filling  the 
cuts  with  glue  and  inserting  thin  wedges,  which 
will  also  tend  to  preserve  the  curvature  of  the 
sweep.  Sometimes  a  strip  of  canvass  is  glued 
upon  the  edge  in  which  the  cuts  have  been  made. 
A  nice  curve  cannot  be  formed  when  the  outer 
edge  is  nicked,  as  the  wood  will  yield  unequally. 

If  the  wood  of  which  the  sweep  is  to  be  made 
be  not  too  thick  and  rigid,  it  may  sometimes  be 
bent  by  soaking  the  side  which  is  to  be  con- 
vex with  hot  water,  at  the  same  time  exposing 
the  opposite  side  to  the  fire.  If  the  work  be 
fixed  while  hot,  it  will  retain  when  cold  the  form 
thus  impressed  upon  it. 

When  curved  work  is  required  of  considerable 
substance  it  is  usual  to  build  it  up  by  glueing 
several  thicknesses,  one  upon  another,  in  a  caul, 
or  mould,  formed  of  two  pieces  of  hard  wood, 
which  have  been  cut  to  the  proper  sweep  for  our 
work.  The  wood  of  which  the  curve  is  to  be 
formed  must  be  even  in  grain,  free  from  knots, 
and  of  uniform  thickness. 


98  Our  Workshop. 

For  some  purposes,  especially  in  pattern- 
making,  it  is  convenient  to  cut  several  pieces  of 
the  required  curve  out  of  comparatively  thin 
"  stuff,"  and  to  glue  them  together  till  the  proper 
thickness  is  obtained.  If  the  sweep  be  formed 
by  joining  several  short  pieces  end  to  end,  the 
second  layer  must  be  arranged  so  that  the  joints 
shall  occur  midway  between  those  of  the  lower 
course  or  in  the  centre  of  the  short  pieces.  It  is 
easy  to  perceive  that  if  the  joints  in  the  several 
layers  were  placed  directly  in  a  line,  the  work 
could  have  very  little  strength ;  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  "break  joints,"  as  in  building  a 
brick  wall. 

We  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  further  re- 
specting the  process  of  "  glueing  up "  works, 
when  considering  the  construction,  various  fram- 
ings, veneering,  &c. 

Although  glue  is  very  largely  employed  as  a 
means  of  uniting  many  portions  of  the  work,  yet 
the  carpenter,  joiner,  and  even  the  cabinet- 
maker, would  be  unable,  without  the  assistance 
of  nails  and  screws,  to  ensure  the  requisite 
strength  of  those  parts  which  are  subjected  to 
severe  strains. 

In  fig.  37  several  varieties  of  nails  in  general 
use  are  shown,  but  without  reference  to  their 
size. 

1.  A  form  called  rose-sharp,  largely  employed 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


99 


for  rough  purposes,  such  as  coopering,  fencing, 
and  general  out- door  works,  is  very  suitable  for 
driving  into  hard  wood.  Another  kind  termed 
jine-rose  are  used  for  pine  and  similar  soft  woods, 
and  being  thinner  than  the  former  sort  is  less 
liable  to  split  the  material.  The  head  of  each 
variety  is  large  and  spreading,  and  very  good 
for  holding  the  work  down. 

2.  This  nail,  also  distinguished  as   rose,  has  a 
flat  or  chisel  point,  which  is  less  likely  to  split 


1       2 

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Fig.  37. 

the  wood  than  one  with  a  sharp  extremity.  The 
chisel  edge  is  placed  across  the  grain,  and  the 
danger  of  spoiling  the  work  by  even  a  slight 
tendency  to  split,  is  avoided,  and  a  nail  of  this 
description  generally  holds  more  firmly  than 
those  with  sharp  points. 

3.  The  clasp  nail  is  largely  used  by  house  car- 
penters in  deal  and  other  soft  woods.     The  name 
is  derived  from  the  peculiar   formation  of  the 
H  2 


100  Our  WwJcshop. 

head,  which  slopes  abruptly  on  opposite  sides, 
clasps  the  wood  when  driven  into  it,  and  when 
punched  below  the  surface,  the  plane  can  be  used 
over  it  without  being  injured. 

4.  The  clout  is  used  for  nailing  iron  and  other 
metal  work  to  wood.     The  head  is  flat  and  cir- 
cular,  and    the   shank   round,  terminating  in  a 
sharp  point. 

5.  Counterclout  nails  have  "  countersinks,"  or 
conical  necks,  under  their  heads,  which  are  re- 
quired to  lie  level  or  flush  with  the  surface  of 
the   work ;     the    shanks   are  round  with  chisel 
points.  These  nails  are  principally  used  by  smiths 
and  wheelwrights. 

6.  Fine  dog  is   distinguished  from  a  stouter 
nail  of  a  similar  kind,  called  strong  or  weigMy 
dog.     Both  sorts  are  used  for  fastening  down 
strong  iron-work,  and  for  many  other  purposes 
in  which  the  heads,  which  are  very  solid  and 
slightly  countersunk,  are  not  required  to  lie  level 
with  the  surface  of  the  work.     The  shanks  are 
round,  and  terminate  in  spear  points,  which  are 
well  adapted  for  piercing  and  clenching. 

7.  Kent-hurdle  nails  have  broad  and    rather 
thin-rose  heads,  clean  drawn  shanks  with  good 
spear    points,    which    are    very    favourable  for 
nailing  and  clenching  the  oaken  bars  of  hurdles 
together.       A  description    called  gate  nails   is 
somewhat  similar. 


Carpentry  ctud'lJoimry.  101 

8.  Rose-clench    are  nails  much  employed   by 
ship  and  boat-builders.    They  are  termed  clench, 
because,   after  being  driven  through  the  plank, 
their   ends    are   bent   over   by  the  hammer   or 
clenched.      If  additional  security  and  neatness 
be  required,  a  small  diamond-shape  plate,  r,  called 
a  rove,  is  slipped  over  the  point,   which  is  then 
rivetted    down    upon    it,   thereby  drawing  the 
planks  very  closely  together.      The  nail  is  used 
extensively  for  securing  the  wood-sheathing  to 
ships'  sides,  for  which  purpose  it  is  unsurpassed, 
as  the  square  blunt  end  punches  the  hole,  which 
would  require  to  be  bored,  if  a  pointed  nail  were 
used,  owing  to  the  fragile  nature  of  the  wood, 
which  is  very  liable  to  split.     Large  quantities 
of  these  nails  are  consumed  in  the  construction 
of  rough  boxes,  packing-cases,  and  other  coarse 
works,  for  which  time  cannot  be  spared  to  bore 
holes  for  the  nails. 

9.  Horse  nails,    employed   for  attaching  the 
shoe   to   the    hoof.      Formerly   the   nails    were 
made   with   square    heads,    but    the  preference 
was    given   to    the    shape    represented,    which 
is     also    slightly     countersunk,     to     allow    the 
heads  to  lie  in  the    groove  made  for  them  in 
the  shoe. 

10.  Brads   are    very   useful    nails,     great    in 
demand  for  all  varieties  of  light  joinery  work. 
The  amateur  will  probably  use  this  class  of  nails 


4,02  ;  : :  ""  J      < '  \ ;  Our:  Worktop. 

almost  to  the  exclusion  of  any  other ;  they  are 
little  liable  to  split  the  wood  and  hold  well. 

The  best  nails  are  made  of  wrought  iron,  of 
which  the  toughest  description  is  selected,  espe- 
cially for  clench  nails.  Large  quantities  of  cheap 
nails  are  manufactured  from  cast  iron,  which  is 
annealed  to  lessen  its  brittleness.  Malleable 
cast-iron  nails  answer  very  well  for  numerous 
coarse  purposes,  such  as  nailing  up  laths  for 
partitions,  for  securing  fruit  trees  to  garden 
walls,  and  many  similar  works  in  which  much 
strength  is  not  required. 

It  is  not  so  easy  to  drive  a  nail  properly  as 
many  people  imagine.  If  the  head  of  the  nail 
be  not  struck  fairly  in  the  centre,  but  obliquely, 
the  shank  will  either  be  bent  or  knocked  out  of 
the  true  position,  to  which  it  cannot  without 
some  difficulty  be  again  restored.  If  the  wood 
be  hard  and  the  nail  long  and  slender,  the  liability 
to  bend  or  cripple  the  shank  is  considerable. 
The  best  way  to  avoid  this  is  to  bore  a  hole 
slightly  smaller  than  the  shank  is  in  the  middle 
of  its  length,  if  it  be  taper,  and  if  parallel,  a 
little  less  than  the  part  immediately  above  the 
point.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  hole  be  made 
as  large  as  the  nail,  the  latter  can  have  little  or 
no  hold,  and  if  too  small,  the  relief  which  it 
affords  is  insufficient  to  avert  the  danger  of 
either  splitting  the  wood  or  crippling  the  nail. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  103 

When  nailing  two  pieces  of  hard  wood  to- 
gether, it  is  only  necessary  for  the  nail  to  fit 
tightly,  or  hold  in  the  piece  which  receives  the 
point,  the  hole  in  the  wood  which  is  to  be  secured 
being  sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  nail  to  pass 
through  easily.  By  this  means  the  labour  of 
driving  a  large  nail  is  much  relieved,  and  the 
shank  is  well  supported  if  the  wood  be  mode- 
rately thick.  It  is  unnecessary  to  bore  a  hole 
for  the  nail  in  deal  and  other  soft  woods,  except 
as  a  precautionary  measure,  when  there  is  danger 
of  splitting  the  material.  If  several  nails  are  to 
be  driven  'in  a  row  near  the  edge  or  end  of  a 
board,  as  in  nailing  the  sides  to  the  ends  of  a 
box,  it  would  be  prudent  to  make  small  holes, 
which  would  probably  not  only  save  the  wood 
from  splitting,  but  also  direct  the  nails  which 
might  otherwise  go  astray.  Nothing  looks  worse, 
or  less  artistic,  than  the  protruding  points  of 
several  nails  which  have  broken  through  the  side 
of  the  work  owing  to  crooked  driving.  The 
thinner  the  wood  of  which  the  box  is  constructed, 
the  greater  is  the  difficulty  of  avoiding  the  dis- 
figurement of  projecting  points,  and  increased 
care  must  be  bestowed  in  driving  the  nails 
straight. 

To  use  the  hammer  properly,  the  shaft  or 
handle  must  be  firmly  grasped  in  the  right  hand, 
and  so  near  the  extremity  that  only  about  an 


104  Our  Workshop. 

inch  of  the  shaft  projects  below  the  little  finger. 
If  a  few  very  light  blows  or  taps  be  required,, 
the  shaft  may  beheld  shorter  or  nearer  the  head; 
but  this  is  not  the  legitimate  way  of  handling 
the  tool.  Before  striking  a  blow  the  face  of  the 
hammer  should  be  rubbed  on  the  floor,  or  on  a 
board  sprinkled  with  a  little  powdered  chalk,  to 
remove  any  grease  that  may  adhere  to  it,  which 
would  cause  the  hammer  to  glance  off  the  head 
of  the  nail.  Though  the  shaft  be  held  near  the 
extremity,  the  hammer  is  perfectly  under  control, 
and  it  should  be  used  lightly  at  first,  gradually 
increasing  the  force  of  the  blows  as  the  nail  sinks 
into  the  wood. 

If  the  blows  be  violent  at  first,  the  nail  will 
be  bent  or  sent  astray,  as  at  this  time  it  derives 
Very  little  support  from  the  wood  into  which  it 
is  being  driven.  The  endeavour  should  be  to 
increase  the  force  of  the  blows  at  intervals,  as 
the  nail  seems  able  to  bear  it,  as  a  too  sudden 
^change  from  light  and  rapid  blows  to  heavy 
strokes  is  almost  sure  to  send  the  nail  astray. 
The  aim  should  be  accurate,  and  the  head  of  the 
nail  must  be  struck  by  the  centre  of  the  hammer- 
face,  otherwise  it  may  be  spoilt  by  a  blow  from 
the  edge,  which  would  also  very  probably  bend 
the  shank.  Sometimes  the  greatest  care  will 
fail  to  ensure  the  straight  driving  of  the  nail. 
If  the  nail  appear  disposed  to  bend  or  go  astray, 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  105 

it  may  frequently  be  restored  to  its  proper 
.position  by  a  few  well-directed  and  slightly 
•oblique  blows,  which  must  be  applied  on  the  side 
of  the  head  furthest  from  the  place  which  the 
•nail  should  occupy. 

Occasionally  the  pincers  (fig.  38)  must  be  used 
to  extract  a  nail  which  has  become  hopelessly 
crippled.  If  the  nail  be  very  fast,  as  it  often 
is  in  hard  wood,  one  of  the  bows  of  the  pincers 


must  be  allowed  to  rest  on  the  surface  of  the 
"work,  in  order  that  it  may  act  as  the  fulcrum  of 
•a  lever  when  the  handles,  which  must  be  grasped 
in  the  right  hand,  are  powerfully  depressed.  A 
double  claw  is  provided  at  the  end  of  one  of  the 
handles  for  "  prizing  up  "  nails  which  have  been 
home.  The  claws  are  sharp  enough  to  penetrate 
the  wood  around  and  under  the  head  of  the  nail, 
the  neck  of  which  can  then  pass  between  them. 
By  depressing  the  opposite  end  of  the  pincers 
the  nail  will  be  raised  sufficiently  to  enable  us  to 
draw  it  out.' 

If  the  work  require  a  finishing  touch  from  the 
plane,  the  heads  of  the  nails  must  be  punched 
below  the  surface.  This  is  almost  equally  neces- 


106  Our  Workshop. 

sary  if  the  wood  is  to  be  painted,  and  the  cavities 
left  by  the  displaced  heads  mast  be  filled  with 
putty  to  hide  them.  The  punch  consists  of  a 
cylindrical  piece  of  steel  about  three  inches  long, 
tapering  from  the  middle  of  its  length  to  one 
extremity.  The  point  must  be  quite  blunt, 
otherwise  it  will  not  drive  the  nail  down  satis- 
factorily. Two  opposite  sides  of  the  taper  end 
of  the  punch  must  be  flat  for  brads,  and  some- 
what similar  in  shape  to  the  nail  itself.  The 
point  of  the  punch  must  be  hardened  to  enable 
it  to  retain  its  shape.  If  the  end  be  heated  to 
a  dull  red,  and  then  be  thrust  into  a  lump  of 
tallow  or  candle-grease,  it  will  become  sufficiently 
hard. 

The  wood  screw,  also  sometimes  called  the 
screwnail,  is  a  strong  and  ready  means  of  uniting 
numerous  works  in  wood.  The  screw  possesses 
a  great  advantage  over  the  nail  in  situations 
where  considerable  strength  is  required,  as  it 
powerfully  resists  any  tendency  to  draw  it  out 
of  the  wood  like  a  common  nail.  There  are 
many  instances  in  joinery  and  cabinet  making, 
in  which  a  nail  would  be  useless,  owing  to  the 
fragile  character  of  the  work  and  the  trifling 
thickness  of  the  material,  which  could  not  afford 
sufficient  hold  for  a  nail.  It  is  in  these  delicate 
articles  that  the  screw  proves  of  so  much  value. 
The  screw,  unlike  the  nail,  needs  no  application 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


107 


of  the  hammer,  which  is  another  advantage 
peculiar  to  the  former.  The  jar  occasioned  by 
driving  a  nail  would  be  fatal  to  some  of  the 
lighter  classes  of  works,  supposing  nail-hold 
could  be  found  in  them. 

Probably  Mr.  Nettleford's  patent  screw  repre- 
sented at  A,  fig.  39,  is  the  best  at  present  manu- 
factured. The  upper  side  of  the  "  thread/'  which 
is  flat  and  considerably  inclined,  offers  great  re- 


Fig.  39. 

sistance  to  the  screw  being  drawn  out  of  the 
wood  like  a  common  nail.  The  thread  may  be 
compared  to  a  cone,  the  base  of  which  stands 
upwards.  The  conical  or  sloping  sides  of  the 
thread  enable  the  screw  to  penetrate  the  wood 
with  great  facility.  The  stem  or  shank  of  the 
screw  is  also  made  taper,  being  smaller  at  the 
extremity  than  at  the  commencement  of  the 
thread.  At  B  is  shown  the  mould  or  impression 
made  by  the  screw  in  wood ;  and  at  C  is  seen 
the  irregular  and  imperfect  counterpart  of  the 
thread  of  a  common  wood-screw.  Nettleford's 


108  Our  Workshop. 

patent  screw  may  not  be  sold  by  the  tradesman 
with  whom  some  of  our  readers  may  be  obliged 
to  deal;  however,  the  best  specimens  of  the 
ordinary  screws  will  answer  sufficiently  well  for 
many  purposes. 

When  choosing  either  iron  or  brass  wood- 
screws  select  those  with  moderately  deep  threads, 
approaching  as  nearly  as  possible  the  shape  of 
A,  fig.  39.  The  end  or  point  of  the  screw  must 
also  be  smaller  than  the  blank  part  just  below 
the  head.  Those  having  a  projecting  bur  at  the 
extremity  of  the  thread  should  be  rejected,  as 
the  bur  is  apt  to  tear  away  the  wood  as  the  screw 
advances,  leaving  little  or  perhaps  nothing  by 
which  it  can  hold.  The  nick,  or  diametrical 
saw-cut  made  in  the  head  for  the  screw-driver, 
must  be  of  uniform  depth,  and  not,  as  it  fre- 
quently happens,  highest  at  the  centre.  The 
•depth  of  the  nick  is  also  of  some  importance,  for 
if  too  deep  the  head  is  liable  to  be  broken  by  the 
screw-driver,  which  latter,  however,  will  have  in- 
sufficient hold  if  the  nick  be  too  shallow.  The 
depth  of  the  nick  may  with  advantage  be  about 
half  the  thickness  of  the  head,  and  it  should  be 
of  the  same  width  throughout. 

The  end  of  the  screw-driver  should  be  formed 
as  shown  in  the  two  views,  fig.  40.  The  sloping 
sides,  or  chamfers,  must  not  meet  at  the  ex- 
tremity, or  a  sharp  edge  will  result,  which  would 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


109 


injure  the  sides  of  the  nick  if  the  screw-driver 
slipped  out.  The  chamfers  must  be  ground  to 
an  angle  of  about  ten  or  fifteen  degrees,  or  the 
tool  will  be  unable  to  retain  its  hold  in  the  nick, 
and  by  frequently  slipping  out  it  will  not  only 
disfigure  the  head  of  the  screw,  but  also  lessen 


Fig.  40. 

our  power  to  move  it.  For  very  large  wood- 
screws,  and  for  screws  for  metal  work,  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  driver  should  be  somewhat  dif- 
ferently formed,  as  seen  in  fig.  41 .  The  sloping 
sides,  or  chamfers,  are  unfavourable  in  their 
action  when  much  resistance  has  to  be  overcome, 


Fig.  41. 

as  the  pressure  on  the  inclined  surface  is  apt  to 
force  the  tool  out  of  the  nick.  In  fig.  41  the 
sides  of  the  driver  are  filled  parallel  for  a  short 
distance,  to  enable  it  to  fit  the  nick  for  its  entire 
depth.  The  parallel  part  must  not  be  deeper 
than  necessary,  or  it  will  be  liable  to  break ;  and 


110  Our  Workshop. 

for  the  same  reason  a  sharp  angle  or  corner 
should  be  avoided  where  the  straight  part  meets 
the  chamfer.  The  end  must  be  made  of  steel, 
and  hardened,  so  that  a  smooth  file  will  just 
scratch  it.  There  is  less  difficulty  in  driving  a 
screw  straight  than  a  nail,  as  the  former  will 
generally  follow  the  direction  of  the  hole  made 
to  receive  it,  while  the  latter  is  influenced  in 
a  great  measure  by  the  blows  of  the  hammer. 

A  hole  must  be  made  for  the  screw,  but  not 
larger  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  any  excess 
of  size  will  rob  the  screw  of  a  part  of  its  hold. 
There  is,  however,  danger  of  splitting  the  wood 
if  the  hole  be  too  small;  and  sometimes  the 
screw,  after  entering  a  short  distance,  "  strips  " 
the  thread  or  hold  it  had  obtained,  and  requires 
to  be  replaced  by  one  of  larger  size.  This  is  very 
likely  to  occur  if  the  wood  be  hard  and  brittle, 
as  the  point  of  the  screw  drives  the  fibre  of  the 
wood' before  it,  and  contracts  the  hole  so  much 
that  the  slight  hold  the  screw  has  obtained  is 
insufficient  to  enable  it  to  overcome  the  resistance. 
The  hole  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  size 
of  the  screw  at  the  bottom  of  the  thread,  and  if 
made  in  hard  wood  the  material  must  be  removed 
by  a  gimlet  like  fig.  42,  if  the  hole  be  small,  and 
if  large,  by  a  twisted  gimlet,  fig.  44.  Very  small 
screws  require  so  little  room  that,  generally  speak- 
ing, the  hole  for  them  may  be  made  by  a  brad-awl, 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


Ill 


which  is  also  used  for  making  holes  in  soft  wood 
like  deal,  &c.,  the  fibre  being  so  yielding  that  it 
is  unnecessary  to  remove  it,  as  it  may  be  so  easily 
displaced. 


Fig.  42. 


Fig.  43. 


Fig.  44. 


It  is  necessary  when  screwing  two  pieces  of 
wood  together  to  make  the  hole  in  the  piece 
which  receives  the  head  sufficiently  large  to  allow 
the  screw  to  slip  through  easily.  The  head  of 
the  screw  must  be  let  into  the  wood  by  removing 
the  "  stuff"  round  the  edge  of  the  hole  by  a 
counter-sink  bit,  fig.  43.  The  counter-sink  should 
only  be  deep  enough  to  suffer  the  head  to  lie 
fairly  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  work. 
In  the  absence  of  a  counter-sink  bit  the  edge  of 
the  hole  must  be  pared  away  by  a  chisel. 

A  little  tallow  rubbed  over  the  threads  of  the 
screw  will  greatly  facilitate  its  progress,  and  also 
preserve  it  from  rust,  which  powerfully  opposes 


112  Our  Workshop. 

any  future  attempt  to  remove  the  screw.  In  the 
act  of  unscrewing,  the  downward  pressure  on  the 
screw- driver  should  be  only  sufficient  to  keep  the 
tool  in  the  nick,  otherwise  the  thread  in  the  wood 
will  be  strained,  and  perhaps  stripped,  by  the 
needless  resistance  it  has  to  overcome.  Consider- 
able pressure  may  be  required  to  keep  the  screw- 
driver in  the  nick  when  endeavouring  to  start 
a  screw  which  is  very  firmly  fixed ;  but  no  injury 
is  occasioned  at  this  time,  as  the  entire  length 
of  the  thread  in  the  wood  is  sustaining  the  re- 
sistance. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  point  out  the  diffi- 
culties which  are  likely  to  arise  where  nails  and 


Fig.  45. 

screws  are  employed,  and  to  suggest  the  best 
remedies  in  each  case;  but  as  practice  alone  can 
enable  our  readers  to  avoid  casualties  incidental 
to  amateur  workmanship,  we  will  leave  this 
subject  and  consider  some  of  the  tools  of  which 
we  have  not  yet  spoken. 

The  table,  compass,  or  lock-saiu  (fig.  45),  is  used 
for  cutting  out  curved  or  sweep  work.  In  gene- 
ral formation  it  is  similar  to  the  hand- saw 
(fig.  2),  of  which  it  may  be  considered  a  diminu- 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  113 

tive  copy.  The  blade  is  sufficiently  narrow  near 
the  extremity  to  enable  it  to  follow  a  curve  of 
two  or  three  inches  radius. 

A  somewhat  similar  but  more  delicate  instru- 
ment is  met  with  in  the  key-hole  or  fret-saw 
(fig.  46).  The  blade  of  this  saw  is  thinner  and 


Fig.  46. 

more  flexible  than  that  of  the  table- saw,  and  is 
fixed  in  the  handle  by  two  set  screws  which 
can  be  slackened  by  an  ordinary  screw-driver.  A 
narrow  slot  penetrates  the  handle  in  the  direction 
of  its  length,  through  which  the  blade  can  pass, 
so  that  it  may  be  shortened  or  lengthened  at 
pleasure,  to  suit  the  character  of  the  work  in 
hand.  This  provision  is  necessary  to  save  the 
blade  from  being  bent  or  broken  when  the  point 
is  used. 

Neither  of  these  saws  is  capable  of  withstand- 
ing rough  usage,  and  if  they  stick  fast  in  the 
work  must  be  carefully  extricated.  These  saws  do 
not  always  make  their  first  incision  at  the  edge 
of  the  wood,  but  sometimes  in  the  middle  of  a 
board;  consequently,  a  hole  must  be  bored  at 
one,  and  occasionally  at  both  ends  of  the  intended 
skerf,  for  the  introduction  and  removal  of  the 


114  Our  Workshop. 

saw.  Most  of  the  curved  works  that  amateurs 
are  likely  to  attempt  may  be  executed  by  these 
tools. 

For  some  purposes,  however,  a  very  fine  saw- 
kerf  may  be  necessary,  and  the  curve  is  perhaps 
too  small  for  either  the  table  or  the  key-hole 
saw. 

In  this  case  the  turning  saw  (fig.  47)  would  be 
wanted.  The  blade  is  so  slight  and  flexible  that 
it  cannot  be  driven  forward  by  one  end  in  the 


Fig.  47. 

usual  manner,  and  must  necessarily  be  stretched 
in  a  wooden  frame,  to  impart  sufficient  rigidity 
to  enable  it  to  act  satisfactorily.  The  extremities 
of  the  blade  are  secured  by  pins  to  round  handles 
which  are  formed  with  circular  necks  fitting  stiffly 
into  the  lower  ejids  of  the  frame. 

The  two  end-pieces  or  side-rails,  a,  b,  c,  d, 
which  form  the  principal  members  of  the  frame, 
are  kept  apart  by  the  cross-bar  or  stretcher,  ef, 
the  ends  of  which  penetrate  a  short  distance  into 
them,  but  are  not  secured,  as  the  side  rails  are 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  115 

required  to  rotate  slightly  on  their  extremities. 
To  the  top  of  the  frame,  at  a  c,  is  secured  a  coil 
of  cord  which  is  twisted  by  a  lever  (g)  until,  by 
shortening,  it  contracts  the  top  of  the  frame  and 
expands  the  lower  extremity,  thus  imparting  the 
requisite  degree  of  tension  to  the  saw.  The  cir- 
cular necks  of  the  handles  are  longer  than  the 
thickness  of  the  frame,  and  diametrical  slots  or 
kerfs  are  made  in  the  projecting  portions  (n  n) 
for  the  reception  of  the  ends  of  the  blade,  which 
are  secured  by  small  pins,  one  in  each  neck.  One 
extremity  of  the  blade  must  be  disconnected 
from  its  handle  if  the  saw  cannot  be  introduced 
or  withdrawn  at  the  margin  of  the  work.  The 
frame,  by  slightly  rotating  on  the  circular  necks, 
can  assume  any  angle  which  convenience  of 
handling  or  the  outline  of  the  work  may  require, 
and  without  affecting  the  course  of  the  saw. 

Fig.  34  represents  the  tenon,  sash,  carcase, 
and  clove-tail  saws,  which  may  be  spoken  of  col- 
lectively as  back-saws.  The  tenon  saw  is  the 
largest,  and  the  dove-tail  the  smallest  of  the 
group.  These  saws  derive  their  distinctive  titles 
from  the  description  of  the  work  for  which  they 
are  employed. 

The  saw  ing -block   is  much   used  for  guiding 

the    back-saws    when     cutting    the   extremities 

of  mouldings,    or   the    separate    parts    of  light 

frames  to  a  mitre  joint.     The  block  is  formed 

i  2 


116  Our  Workshop. 

like  a  trough  with  open  ends.  The  sides 
must  be  quite  parallel,  both  inside  and  out,  and 
three  saw-kerfs  are  very  carefully  cut  in  them 
with  the  back-saw.  The  kerfs  near  the  right- 
hand  extremity  of  the  block  are  exactly  opposite 
each  other,  consequently  the  saw  will  move  in 
them  at  right  angles  to  the  sides,  and  cut  the 
ends  of  the  work  square.  The  other  kerfs  are 
made  at  angles  of  45  degrees,  and  slope  in 
opposite  directions  for  cutting  mitres  at  the  ends 
of  pieces  which  are  to  be  united  at  right  angles. 
If  the  kerfs  be  not  exactly  vertical,  they  are 
worse  than  useless,  as  the  saw  is  constrained  to 
follow  their  inaccuracies,  which  are  imparted  to 
the  work. 

To  use  the  sawing-block,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  place  the  work  inside,  holding  it  firmly  against 
the  further  side,  with  the  pencil-mark  indicating 
the  line  of  division  exactly  opposite  the  kerf. 
The  saw  must  be  used  with  care,  to  avoid  widen- 
ing the  kerfs  in  the  block. 

When  several  pieces  of  equal  length  are 
to  be  cut  off,  a  small  block  of  wood,  called 
a  stop,  is  temporarily  attached  to  the  sawing- 
block,  which  thus  saves  the  labour  of  mea- 
suring and  marking  out,  at  the  same  time 
ensuring  greater  accuracy.  The  "  shooting- 
boards,"  represented  on  pages  48  and  49,  are 
sometimes  used  in  lieu  of  the  sawing-block. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  117 

The  kerfs  for  the  guidance  of  the  saw  are  made 
in  the  "  strip/5  and  the  work  is  supported 
on  the  "  bed."  This  arrangement  is  very  con- 
venient when  it  is  necessary  to  saw  the  ends 
of  the  work  immediately  after  "  shooting  its 
edges." 

The  spokeshave  (fig.  48)  is  somewhat  similar 
in  its  action  to  the  plane ;  but  owing  to  the 
absence  of  the  guide  principle  which  exists  in 
the  "  sole  "  of  a  plane,,  it  cannot  be  employed 


Fig.  48. 

for  working  flat  surfaces,  as  it  descends  into  all 
the  inequalities,  instead  of  removing  them.  This 
tool  may  be  compared  to  a  knife  held  at  a  very 
low  inclination,  and  indeed  the  pitch  is  lower 
than  that  of  any  of  the  surfacing  planes,  being 
only  about  25  or  »30  degrees.  The  spokeshave 
works  well  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  but  it 
is  only  applicable  to  small  rounded  or  curved 
works  which  cannot  be  wrought  by  the  plane. 
The  blade  is  usually  secured  to  the  stock 
or  handle  by  two  spikes  or  tangs  which  fit 
tightly  into  the  wood.  Set  screws,  s,  s  (fig.  48) 


118  Our  Workshop. 

are  sometimes  employed  to  facilitate  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  blade,  which  must  be  regulated  as 
carefully  as  an  ordinary  plane-iron.  The  extre- 
mities of  the  stock  are  rounded  into  convenient 
handles,  which  are  grasped  in  right  and  left 
hands  respectively.  The  operator  applies  the 
tool  to  the  work  with  the  edge  of  the  cutter 
towards  him,  and  removes  shavings  by  drawing 
the  instrument  forward. 

While  speaking  of  the  various  tools  used  in 
carpentry  and  joinery,  we  may  observe  that  the 


Fig.  49. 

firmer  chisel  (fig.  4)  varies  in  width  from  about 
TC-  inch  to  2 1  inches,  and  is  generally  used  for 
finishing  portions  of  the  work  which  may  have 
been  left  rough  or  ill-defined  from  the  saw,  &c. 

If  the  work  be  light,  it  is  held  down  on  the 
bench  by  the  left  hand,  and  the  chisel  is  applied 
by  the  right.  The  flat  side  of  the  chisel  is  placed 
next  the  work,  with  which  it  must  form  a  slight 
angle,  to  enable  the  edge  to  penetrate  the  wood. 
When  the  work  is  large  or  heavy,  it  must  be 
fixed  either  by  the  "  hold-fast"  (n  li,  fig.  1,  page 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  119 

7),  or  in  the  screw-chops  (C).  If  increased 
power  be  required,  the  tool  is  pressed  forward 
by  the  workman's  shoulder,  and  when  this  fails 
to  make  the  instrument  advance,  the  mallet 
(fig.  49)  must  be  employed  to  drive  it  into  the 
material. 


Fig.  50. 

The  mortise-chisel  (fig.  50)  is  employed,  as  its 
name  implies,  for  making  the  hole  or  mortise 
for  the  reception  of  the  tenon.  This  tool  is 
nearly  square  in  section,  but  unlike  the  firmer 
chisel,  its  cutting  edge  is  formed  on  a  narrow 
instead  of  a  wide  side,  to  enable  it  to  cut  a  con- 
tracted hole,  and  yet  retain  sufficient  strength 
to  withstand  the  blows  of  the  mallet. 

The  gouge  (fig.  51)  acts  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  ordinary  chisels,  but  owing  to  its  semi- 


Fig.  51. 

cylindrical  shape,  it  is  especially  qualified  for 
hollowing  out  deep  cavities.  It  may,  like  the 
chisel,  be  driven  forward  by  the  hand  when  the 
resistance  is  not  great.  These  tools  are  only 
suitable  for  light  works,  and  must  not  be  forcibly 


120 


Our  Workshop. 


struck  by  the  mallet ;  otherwise  the  handles  may- 
be split,  as  the  shoulder  at  the  root  of  the  tang 
causes  the  wood  of  the  handle  to  spread,  and 
will  eventually  split  it.  The  chisels  used  by 
carpenters  are  formed  with  sockets  instead  of 
the  tangs  and  shoulders.  The  handle  is  fitted 
tightly  into  the  socket,  which  effectually  pre- 
serves it  from  splitting,  notwithstanding  the 


Fig.  52. 

violent  blows  which  must  be  struck  to  drive  the 
instrument  into  the  wood  when  cutting  the  large 
mortises,  &c.,  frequently  required  in  heavy 
carpentry  operations. 

The  bevil  (fig.  52)  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
square  (fig.  16),  and  differs  from  it  only  in  not 
having  a  permanently  fixed  blade.  The  square, 
as  we  have  before  stated,  can  only  be  used  for 
testing  the  truth  of  right-angled  surfaces,  which, 
to  be  correct,  must  form  an  angle  of  90  degrees. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  121 

The  bevil,  however,  can  be  employed  for  any 
angle  by  simply  altering  the  position  of  the 
blade,  which  is  attached  to  the  stock  by  a  pin 
that  affords  the  requisite  freedom.  This  tool  is 
very  useful  for  "  trying  "  the  truth  of  the  mitre 
at  the  extremities  of  the  pieces  of  a  light  frame, 
&c.j  as  the  kerf  in  the  sawing-block  may  not  be 
quite  exact,  and  subsequent  correction  of  the 
mitre  by  the  plane  is  then  necessary.  The  stock 
of  the  bevil  must  be  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
work,  and  the  blade  to  the  edge  or  side  which 
is  to  be  bevilled. 

The  brad-aid ,  shown  in  two  views  (fig.  53),  is 
the  simplest  of  the  boring  tools  for  wood.  It 
consists  of  a  cylindrical  steel  wire  with  a  chisel 
edge,  which  is  formed  by  grinding  a  chamfer  oil 
two  opposite  sides.  The  awl  is  fixed  in  a  small 
handle  made  of  beech,  box,  or  other  hard  wood. 
This  tool  answers  very  well  for  making  holes  in 
soft  woods,  but  as  it  displaces  rather  than 
removes  the  fibre,  it  is  apt  to  split  hard  material. 
The  wire-worker's  awl  (fig.  54)  is  better  qualified 
for  boring  hard  wood,  being  square,  and  sharp- 
ened on  the  four  corners  or  angles,  which  cut 
the  fibre  as  the  tool  revolves.  It  gradually 
tapers  also  towards  the  extremity,  which  termi- 
nates in  a  sharp  point,  formed  by  grinding  a 
slight  chamfer  for  a  short  distance  on  each  of 
the  sides. 


122 


Our  Workshop. 


Large  holes  can  only  be  made  by  removing 
the  material,  and  much  ingenuity  has  been  dis- 
played in  the  formation  of  "bits,"  which,,  by 
allowing  the  chips  to  escape  while  boring,  save 
the  time  which  would  otherwise  be  lost  in  fre- 
quently withdrawing  and  clearing  them.  The 
simplest  of  these  contrivances  is  the  shell,  also 
called  the  youge-bit  or  quill-bit  (fig.  55).  In 
shape  it  much  resembles  an  ordinary  gouge,  and 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.  54.         Fig.  55. 


it  is  sharpened  at  the  end  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  sharp  extremity  shears  the  fibre  of  the  wood 
round  the  margin  of  the  hole,  and  the  material 
entering  the  semi- cylindrical  shell  is  removed 
almost  as  a  solid  piece.  Holes  of  several  inches 
in  depth  can  be  bored  with  this  kind  of  bit,  and 
it  will  work  very  easily  if  lubricated  with  a  little 
tallow.  When  boring  a  deep  hole,  the  tool  is 
apt  to  go  astray;  it  is  therefore  advisable  to 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  123 

change  the  position  of  the  work  occasionally,  to 
prevent  the  accumulation  of  error  in  one  direc- 
tion. If  the  work  be  turned  a  quarter  round 
after  every  twenty  revolutions  of  the  bit,  the 
latter  will  not  depart  far  from  its  intended 
course. 

A  larger  variety  of  the  quill-bit  is  met  with  in 
the  sliell-aucjcr  (fig.  56).  The  body  or  shell  still 
resembles  a  gouge,  but  the  cutting  extremity  is 
differently  formed.  Apian  of  the  cutter  is  shown 


Fig.  56. 

above.  It  consists  of  a  small  transverse  blade, 
which  pares  away  the  wood,  and  allows  it  to 
escape  into  the  shell. 

The  common  gimlet  (fig.  42),  is  a  diminution 
of  the  shell-bit,  with  only  this  difference,  that 
the  former  terminates  in  a  screw  instead  of 
a  sharp  edge.  The  screw  is  conical  in  shape, 
gradually  decreasing  from  the  full  diameter  of 
the  shell  to  a  sharp  point.  The  tool  is  drawn 
into  the  wood  by  the  screw,  and  the  cutting  is 
performed  by  the  sharp  angular  corner  at  the 
extremity  of  the  fluted  part.  When  the  shell  or 
fluted  part  has  penetrated  about  an  inch  into  the 
wood  the  instrument  must  be  unwound  to  liberate 


124 


Our  Workshop. 


the  screw,  and  then  withdrawn  and  emptied. 
The  gimlet  is  more  apt  to  split  the  wood  than 
the  gouge-bit,  and  should  not  be  used  near  the 
margin  of  work,  especially  if  the  material  be  hard 
or  brittle. 

The  twisted  gimlet  (fig.  44),  to  which  reference 
has  before  been  made,  may  be  employed  with 
less  risk  of  splitting  the  work.  The  stem  is 
conical,  or  larger  at  the  upper  than  at  the  lower 
extremity,  which  is  formed  into  a  screw  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  the  fluted  gimlet.  Instead  of 
a  longitudinal  groove  or  flute,  a  spiral  groove  is 
made  in  the  stem  for  the  escape  of  the  material. 


Fig.  5/. 

The  cutting  is  done  by  the  sharp  extremity  of 
the  stem  at  the  termination  of  the  spiral  groove. 
The  centre-bit  shown  in  two  views  in  fig.  57 
is  a  very  useful  tool,  much  employed  for  boring 
holes' which  are  required  to  be  round,  smooth, 
and  parallel,  but  not  very  deep.  The  point,  p} 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  125 

is  stuck  into  the  wood  where  the  centre  of  the 
intended  hole  should  exist,  and  after  the  point 
has  penetrated  a  short  distance,  the  nicker,  n, 
which  is  sharp  and  knife-like,  marks  out  the 
circumference  of  the  hole.  The  pressure  applied 
by  the  operator  causes  the  centre-point  and 
nicker  to  sink  into  the  wood  as  the  bit  revolves, 
and  the  cutter,  c,  pares  away  the  material  within 
the  circle  'described  by  the  nicker.  The  efficient 
action  of  this  instrument  depends  on  the  proper 
relative  proportions  and  sharpness  of  the  centre 
nicker  and  cutter.  The  centre  must  be  a  little 
longer  than  the  nicker,  to  enable  the  tool  to 
obtain  a  steady  footing  before  it  is  required  to- 
withstand  even  the  slight  strain  brought  upon  it 
by  the  nicker.  The  nicker  must  in  its  turn  be 
in  advance  of  the  cutter,  so  that  it  may  divide 
the  fibre  round  the  margin  of  the  intended  hole, 
previously  to  the  removal  of  the  wood  by  the 
cutter,  which  latter  should  have  a  little  less 
radius  than  the  nicker,  as  it  must  not  touch  the 
circumference  of  the  hole.  The  nicker  leads  or 
prepares  the  way  for  the  cutter  throughout  the 
entire  depth  of  the  hole,  and  also  leaves  its 
circumference  tolerably  smooth.  The  length  of 
the  centre  from  its  point  to  the  edge  of  the  cutter 
is  available  for  keeping  the  bit  in  its  true  position. 
The  bit  represented  in  fig.  58  is  unprovided 
with  a  nicker,  but  is  furnished  with  two  cutters, 


126  Our  Workshop. 

one  on  each  side  of  the  centre-point.  If  the 
tool  be  sharpened  down  the  sides,  which  must 
also  be  exactly  parallel,  it  will  bore  hard  wood 
very  satisfactorily  in  all  directions  of  the  grain. 

When  the  bits  become  blunt,  they  can  be 
sharpened  by  rubbing  the  cutting  parts  with  a 
small  slip  of  oilstone,  which  may  be  purchased 
at  any  tool- shop.  As  the  grindstone  cannot  be 
employed,  the  bits  should  not  be '  too  long 


Fig.  58. 

neglected,  otherwise  it  will  take  some  time  to 
restore  them  to  an  efficient  condition.  If  the 
steel  be  not  very  hard,  a  fine  file  or  a  bit  of 
gritstone  may  be  used  prior  to  the  oilstone,  if 
the  bit  has  become  very  blunt. 

The  centre  and  small  gouge-bits  have  motion 
imparted  to  them  by  the  brace  (fig.  59),  which 
is  simply  a  crank  made  of  either  iron  or  wood. 
A  metal  socket  or  pad  is  provided  at  the  lower 
end,  into  which  the  shanks  of  the  bits  are  in- 
serted. The  hole  in  the  pad  is  square,  and 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  127 

slightly  taper,  and  a  spring  catch  is  added  to 
retain  the  bit  while  it  is  being  withdrawn  from 
the  wood.  The  upper  extremity  of  the  brace  is 
fitted  with  a  swivel-cap  or  head,  which  the 
carpenter  places  against  his  chest  when  using 
the  tool  horizontally,  but  he  holds  it  in  his  left 
hand  when  employing  the  instrument  vertically. 


The  large  shell-bits  require  much  power  to 
move  them,  and  are  therefore  fitted  at  one  end 
with  a  transverse  handle,  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  an  ordinary  gimlet.  Sometimes  a  ring 
or  eye  is  formed  at  the  extremity  of  the  shank, 
and  a  handle  is  driven  tightly  into  it. 

As  the  amateur  is  not  likely  to  require  boring 
tools  of  large  size,  it  is  unnecessary  to  consider 
the  formation  of  twisted  augurs,  &c.,  which  are 
only  combinations  of  the  twisted  gimlet  and  the 
centre-bit. 

When  using  a  centre-bit  to  bore  a  hole  quite 
through  a  piece  of  work,  the  tool  must  not  be 


128  Our  Workshop. 

allowed  to  pierce  the  opposite  side,  as  it  will 
leave  the  margin  of  the  hole  torn  and  uneven. 
Directly  the  centre-point  appears,  the  bit  must 
be  withdrawn,  and  the  work  turned  over.  The 
centre-point  can  then  be  placed  in  the  small 
hole  it  has  made,  and  the  large  hole  be  satis- 
factorily finished.  Very  little  pressure  must  be 
used,  or  the  thin  plate  of  wood  will  be  forced  in, 
and  leave  the  edge  more  ragged  than  if  the  hole 
had  been  completed  from  one  side. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


129 


CHAPTER   VI. 


GEOOVING    PLANES,    ETC. 

I'HERE  are  many  joinery  works  which 
cannot  be  conveniently  united  by  nails 
and  screws,  and  even  glue  in  some 
situations  would  be  of  little  service.  The 
strength  and  neatness  of  many  works  depend  on 
the  judicious  employment  of  tongued  and  grooved 
attachments,  rebates,  mouldings,  &c.,  which  are 
formed  by  suitable  planes,  totally  distinct  from 
those  used  for  surfacing.  The  surfacing-planes, 


Fig.  60.  Fig.  61. 

however,  must  in  all  cases  be  first  employed  to 
impart  the  requisite  truth  to  the  work,  previously 
to  applying  the  grooving-planes,  &c. 

Fig.  60  is  a  back,  and  fig.  61  a  side  view  of 


130  Our  Workshop. 

the  side  fillister,  which  is  employed  for  planing  a 
rebate  around  the  edges  of  a  panel,  a  portion  of 
which  is  seen  at  A.  The  fillister  is  required  to 
work,  not  only  with,  but  also  across  the  grain. 
We  have  seen  that  soft  wood,  like  pine,  cannot 
be  smoothly  planed  across  the  grain,  and  that 
the  plane  must  be  held  obliquely  to  enable  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  iron  to  attack  the  fibre  as 
favourably  as  possible.  It  must  be  evident  that 
the  fillister,  and  planes  of  a  similar  class,  which 
are  always  constrained  to  move  parallel  with 
the  edge  of  the  work,  cannot  be  used  obliquely 
when  cutting  across  the  grain.  To  surmount 
this  difficulty,  the  iron  is  fixed  obliquely  in  the 
stock,  instead  of  straight  across,  as  in  the  sur- 
facing-planes. 

The  depth  and  width  of  the  rebate  are  regulated 
by  moveable  pieces  attached  to  the  stock,  which 
are  capable  of  great  nicety  of  adjustment.  The 
width  is  determined  by  the  amount  the  loose 
strip  OY fence,  f, /,  figs.  60  or  61,  is  setback  from 
the  side  of  the  stock  which  is  towards  the  work, 
and  the  depth  by  the  height  the  stop,  s,  s,  is 
raised  from  the  sole. 

To  make  this  quite  clear,  we  will  suppose  that 
the  rebate  is  one  inch  wide  and  one  inch  deep. 
The  screws,  I,  ly  whiah:  secure  the  fence  to  the 
sole,  must  be  slackened,  and  the  fence  set  back 
one  inch  from  the  side  of  the  stock.  The  dis- 


Oarpeniry  and  Joinery.  131 

tance  must  be  measured  by  the  rule  at  both  ends 
of  the  plane,  care  being  taken  to  set  the  edge  of 
the  fence  quite  parallel  to  the  side ;  the  screws 
are  then  tightened.  The  depth  is  more  readily 
adjusted,  it  being  only  necessary  to  raise  the 
stop,  s,  s,  one  inch  above  the  sole,  by  turning 
the  thumb-screw,  t,  t,  in  the  proper  direction. 
Both  measures  are  now  fixed,  and  the  iron  will 
continue  to  cut  until  the  stop,  s,  s,  by  coming  in 
contact  with  the  surface  of  the  work,  prevents  any 
further  encroachment.  The  fence,  /,  /,  by  rub- 
bing along  the  edge  of  the  work,  not  only 
determines  the  width  of  the  rebate,  but  also 
keeps  its  shoulder  parallel  to  the  edge.  It  must 
be  understood  that  the  fence  is  placed  against 
the  margin  of  the  panel  from  the  first,  and  con- 
tinues in  contact  with  it  until  the  rebate  is 
finished. 

The  oblique  iron,  like  the  cutter  in  an  ordinary 
surfacing-plane,  is  sharp  only  on  the  lower  edge 
which  works  the  rebate  in  the  direction  of  its 
depth.  The  shoulder  or  perpendicular  edge 
would  therefore  be  left  rough,  if  another  addition 
were  not  made  to  the  fillister.  A  small  sup- 
plementary cutter  or  scoring  point,  p,  p.  is  fixed 
in  advance  of  the  oblique  iron,  and,  by  dividing 
the  fibres,  makes  the  perpendicular  edge  or 
shoulder  clean  and  square.  The  action  of  this 
little  tooth  or  blade,  seen  separately  on  the  left- 
K  2 


132 


Our  Workshop. 


hand  side  of  fig.  60,  is  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  "  nicker"  of  the  centre-bit.  Most  of  the 
planes  for  working  across  the  grain  are  furnished 
with  oblique  irons  and  scoring-points. 

The  skew  rebate,  also  called  the  r alb ct -plane,  is 
frequently  used  instead  of  the  fillister,  but  owing 


Fig.  62. 


to  the  absence  of  the  fence  and  stop,  it  is  more 
difficult  to  manage  satisfactorily.  This  tool  is 
shown  in  elevation  in  fig.  62 ;  fig.  63  is  an  end 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.  64. 


view,  and  fig.  64  is  a  plan  of  the  sole.  The  iron 
(fig.  65),  like  that  on  the  fillister,  is  fixed 
obliquely  or  askew  in  the  stock.  No  scoring- 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  133 

point  is  provided,  but  the  iron  is  made  to  act  in 
a  two-fold  manner,  by  sharpening  the  right-hand 
edge,  r,  so  that  it  may  work  the  perpendicular 
side  of  the  rebate.  A  hole,  h,  fig.  62,  passes 
through  the  side  of  the  stock  to  allow  the 
shavings  to  escape. 


Fig.  65. 

Square  rabbet-planes,  in  which  the  irons  are 
set  straight  across  the  stock,  are  also  in  very 
general  use.  The  iron  is  sharp  only  on  the 
lower  edge,  and  is  employed  in  the  lengthway  of 
the  grain.  Neither  the  skew  nor  the  square 
rabbet-plane  can  be  used  with  certainty  to  com- 
mence a  rebate,  owing  to  the  absence  of  a  fence 
to  determine  its  width  or  the  distance  from  the 
margin  of  the  work.  A  practised  joiner  may  ex- 
ecute the  work  by  the  aid  of  a  deep  gauge-line, 
indicating  the  width  of  the  rebate,  and  placing 
his  fore-finger  under  the  sole  and  against  the 
margin  of  the  board,  to  act  as  a  fence.  If,  after 
gauging  a  deep  line,  the  wood  be  roughly  re- 
moved by  a  firmer  chisel,  in  order  to  leave  a 
shoulder  to  guide  the  plane,  the  difficulty  will  be 
much  diminished.  A  narrow  strip  of  wood  is 
sometimes  temporarily  tacked  on  to  the  sole  of 


134  Our  Wvrksliop. 

the  plane  to  serve  as  a  fence,  exposing  only  as 
much  of  the  iron  as  the  width  of  the  intended 
rebate.  If  the  perpendicular  side  of  the  rebate 
be  left  rough,  the  plane  must  be  turned  over  to 
enable  the  iron  to  work  it. 

The  plough  (fig.  66)  may  be  used  either  as  a 
rebate  or  a  grooving-plane,  but  it  is  more  espe- 
cially qualified  for  the  latter.  In  some  respects 


Fig-.  66. 

the  plough  is  similar  to  the  fillister,  being  fur- 
nished with  a  fence  and  a  stop.  The  fence,  /,  is 
not  immediately  attached  to  the  stock,  but  is 
built  on  two  transverse  stems,  s,  s,  which  pene- 
trate the  sides  of  the  stock,  and  afford  the  fence 
a  much  greater  horizontal  range  than  it  could 
otherwise  possess.  The  position  of  the  fence 
being  determined,  the  stems  are  locked  by  thin 
wedges,  which  are  knocked  in  gently,  so  that 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


135 


they  may  again  be  easily  liberated.  The  iron  is 
not  fixed  obliquely  in  the  stock,  but  square 
across,  as  in  the  surfacing-planes.  The  width  of 
the  groove  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  iron,  con- 
sequently the  plough  must  be  furnished  with 
several  cutters.  An  iron  plate,  p,  p,  is  secured 
to  the  stock,  in  order  to  retain  the  cutter  in  the 
perpendicular  position,  which  it  effects  by  fitting 
into  a  narrow  angular  groove  made  in  the  back 


Fig:.  67. 

of  the  latter ;  the  plate  is  cut  away  in  front  of 
the  blade  to  allow  the  shavings  to  escape.  As 
the  plough  is  almost  invariably  employed  in  the 
lengthway  of  the  grain,  the  scoring-point  is  not 
required. 

It  is  evident  that  the  distance  of  the  groove 
from  the  edge  of  the  work  against  which  the 
fence  rubs,  is  limited  to  the  length  of  the  trans- 
verse stems,  s,  s,  fig.  66.  Frequently  a  groove, 
or  perhaps  several,  are  required  much  further 


136 


Our  Workshop. 


from  the  margin  of  the  work  than  the  range  of 
the  fence  will  permit. 

A  simpler  form  of  grooving-plane  must  be 
employed  in  this  case,  and  one  in  which  the 
fence  forms  no  part  of  the  structure. 

Fig.  67  represents  a  grooving-plane  applicable 
for  making  grooves  at  any  distance,  however  re- 
mote from  the  edge  of  the  work.  A  narrow 
strip  of  wood  (.9)  or  a  straight  edge  is  temporarily 


Fig.  68. 


Fig.  69. 


Fg.  70. 


nailed  down  to  guide  the  tool  while  cutting  the 
groove.  As  the  plane  is  often  used  across  the 
grain,  it  must  be  furnished  with  a  scoring-point, 
in  fact  with  two — one  for  each  side  of  the  groove. 
One  scoring-point  will  suffice  if  it  be  divided  at 
the  extremity  into  two  teeth,  as  shown  separately 
at  page  129.  The  grooves  formed  by  this  plane 
are  generally  intended  for  receiving  the  ends  of 
shelves;  consequently  their  sides  are  the  more 
important  parts,  and  the  bottoms  may  be  suf- 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  137 

iiciently  well  worked  by  an  iron  fixed  square 
across  the  stock.  The  stop  must  still  be  retained 
with  the  thumb-screw  adjustment ;  or  the  less 
costly  and  less  certain  arrangement  of  a  piece  of 
boxwood  stiffly  fitted  into  the  stock  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  it. 

Boards  for  partitions  and  similar  works  could 
not  be  properly  united  by  simply  glueing  them 
edge  to  edge.  The  split-deal  or  match  planes 
(figs.  68  and  69)  are  therefore  used  by  carpenters 
to  form  the  groove  and  tongue-joint,  which  is 
shown  finished  in  fig.  70.  These  are  simply 
grooving-planes  for  working  with  the  grain  :  the 
irons  are  placed  square  in  the  stocks,  and  the 
scoring-points  are  omitted ;  the  stops  are  not  re- 
quired, as  the  tool  is  worked  until  some  pa-rt  of 
the  stock  rests  on  the  work.  These  planes  are 
made  in  pairs,  and  must  be  used  only  for  "  stuff " 
of  the  thickness  for  which  they  are  intended, 
otherwise  the  centre  of  the  irons  will  not  cor- 
respond with  the  centre  of  the  work,  and  the 
groove  and  tongue  will  not  be  in  the  middle  of 
the  edge  of  the  board. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  plane  the  per- 
pendicular sides  of  grooves,  &c.,  independently 
of  the  bottoms,  to  widen  them  sufficiently  to 
admit  a  thicker  shelf,  &c.  The  rabbet  and 
grooving-planes  would  be  inconvenient,  even  if 
they  could  be  used ;  consequently  another  tool, 


138 


Our  Workshops 


which,  will  cut  on  one  side  only,,  must  be  em- 
ployed. The  side  rebate-plane  is  shown  in 
elevation  in  fig.  71.  It  will  be  seen,  by  refer- 
ring to  fig.  73,  that  the  left-hand  side  s  of  the 
stock  is  bevilled,  thus  reducing  the  part  which 
is  the  sole  in  other  planes  to  a  narrow  edge,  the 
sole  being  transferred  to  the  side  a  I)  •  the  edge 
of  the  cutter  is  seen  at  c,  fig.  71.  The  iron  is 


Fig.  71. 


Fig.  73. 


Fig.  72. 

fixed  obliquely  in  the  stock,  as  may  be  seen  at 
f,  fig.  72,  which  is  a  plan  of  the  tool.  The 
iron  is  similar  in  shape  to  the  stock  at  s,  fig.  73, 
and  is  placed  in  it  obliquely,  to  give  the  side 
edge  the  necessary  prominence,  and  vertically, 
because  the  lower  extremity  is  no  longer  required 
to  operate.  These  planes  are  made  in  pairs,  or 
right  and  left-handed,  so  that  they  may  be  con- 
veniently employed  in  situations  where  the  work 
cannot  be  turned  round  to  bring  the  opposite 
edge  toward  the  workman. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  130 

Moulding-planes  are  not  now  much  employed, 
as  mouldings  can  be  produced  by  machinery  at  a 
much  cheaper  rate  than  by  hand  labour.  The 
irons  of  moulding-planes  have  the  exact  but  re- 
versed outline  of  the  required  moulding  imparted 
to  their  edges,  so  that  the  hollow  or  concave 
parts  leave  mouldings  in  relief,  while  the  convex 
portions,  by  removing  the  material,  make  cor- 
responding depressions. 

The  joiner  uses  moulding-planes  of  a  simple 
and  neat  design  for  window-frames  or  sashes, 
and  for  the  sash-bars  between  which  the  panes 
of  glass  are  introduced.  The  work  must  be  truly 
planed  to  its  proper  size  before  the  moulding-plane 
can  be  employed,  as  this  tool,  like  the  grooving- 
planes,  requires  true  surfaces  to  work  upon. 

The  sticking -board,  S  S,  fig.  74,  is  of  great  as- 
sistance when  working,  or,  technically  speaking, 
sticking  a  moulding  on  very  slight  work,  like  the 
sash-bar,  b  b.  The  sash-bar  is  held  by  jamming 
the  tongue  that  is  formed  for  holding  the  glass 
into  the  groove  g,  in  the  strip  d  d,  which  latter 
is  secured  to  the  bed  S  S.  The  moulding  not 
being  made  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  board, 
but  obliquely,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  slanting 
position  of  the  plane  P,  the  work  must  first  be 
roughly  bevilled  by  the  jack-plane  to  lessen  the 
labour  of  sticking  the  moulding. 

The  moulding-plane  is  provided  with  a  fence 


140 


Our  Workshop. 


a  stop  solid  with  the  stock,  as  they  do  not 
require  adjustment,  as  in  the  fillister,  &c.    When 


ihe  plane  is  applied  to  the  work,  the  fence  o,  fig. 
74,  is  placed  against  the  edge,  and  is  kept  in 
contact  with  it  until  the  moulding  is  finished. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  141 

The  iron  continues  to  remove  the  material  till 
the  stop  n  rests  upon  the  surface  of  either  the 
strip  d,  or  the  plain  part  of  the  sash-bar.  On 
the  completion  of  the  first  side,  the  sash-bar 
must  be  turned  over  and  refixed.  The  finished 
side  being  bevilled,  it  cannot  rest  fairly  on  the 
bed,  S  S,  therefore  small  wedges  of  wood  or 
packing-pieces  must  be  inserted  between  it  and 
the  bed  to  support  the  bar  and  relieve  the  tongue 
of  the  undue  strain,  which  otherwise  it  would  be 
required  to  sustain,  while  we  were  "  sticking " 
the  second  side  of  the  bar. 

The  tongue  on  the  sash-bar  is  generally  worked 
by  a  sash-plane,  which  is  expressly  qualified  for 
the  purpose;  a  fillister  may,  however,  be  employed 
in  its  absence.  The  moulding  now  in  general 
favour  for  sash-bars  is  called  the  lamb's-tongue, 
which,  being  free  from  angles  and  sharp  edges, 
is  not  disfigured  by  the  paint  which  clogs  and 
spoils  the  appearance  of  more  intricate  designs. 

In  joining,  it  is  often  necessary  to  stick  a 
moulding  on  one  side  only,  the  other  being  left 
flat,  that  it  may  bed  fairly  against  the  panels,  as 
in  door  and  shutter  work.  The  same  sticking- 
board  may  be  used;  but  as  there  is  no  tongue  to 
the  mouldings  employed  for  door-frames,  &c.,  the 
work  must  be  fixed  to  the  board  by  a  thin  blade 
of  steel,  called  a  berwh-knije,  which  is  driven 
partly  into  both  at  the  back  end.  When  several 


142 


Our  Workshop, 


mouldings  of  the  same  pattern  are  required,  the 
joiner  "  sticks "  a  long  piece,  which  he  after- 
wards cuts  into  lengths  suitable  for  his  work. 

Sometimes  the  edges  of  work  are  rounded,  or 
a  hollow  groove  is  formed  on  them  in  situations 
where  a  moulding  is  not  required.  The  rounded 
or  convex  edge  could  be  wrought  by  a  surfacing- 
plane,  but  the  concave  or  groove  could  not  be 
"  stuck "  without  a  special  tool.  Planes  called 
hollows  and  rounds  are  therefore  used,  in  which 
the  soles  and  irons  are  curved  to  suit  the  work. 


6" 


8      9       70 


Fig.  75. 

These  planes  are  made  in  pairs,  the  round  (or 
convex)  exactly  fitting  into  its  corresponding 
hollow  (or  concave)  partner.  It  must  be  evident 
that  the  liollow  will  make  the  edge  of  the  work 
round,  and  the  round  will  produce  a  hollow 
or  groove.  A  complete  set  comprises  eighteen 
pairs.  A  good  workman  can  sometimes  make 
two  or  three  sizes  of  hollows  and  rounds  do  duty 
for  a  moulding-plane,  or  he  may  use  them  to 
correct  or  otherwise  modify  a  moulding  which 
fails  to  give  satisfaction. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


143 


Some  of  tlie  principal  mouldings  employed  in 
joinery  are  shown  in  fig.  75.  No.  1  is  simply  a 
rounded  end,  such  as  would  be  made  by  a  hollow 
plane ;  No.  2  is  called  a  gwrJced  bead ;  No.  3, 
double  quirk  bead.  No.  4  is  a  double  bead  and 
quirk ;  No.  5  is  a  double  fillet ;  No.  6  is  a  torous 
bead;  No.  7  is  an  ogee ;  and  No.  8  is  a  reversed 


ogee;  No.  9,  hollow  and  half-round;  No.  10  is 
an  ovolo  and  bead.  The  mouldings  1  and  3  are 
used  for  projecting  pieces  of  wood  or  for  pro- 
jecting angles;  Nos.  2_,  4,  5,  6  are  used  for 
horizontal  joints;  Nos.  7,  8,  9  are  employed  for 
capping  or  for  bead  mouldings. 

The  proper  way  of  holding  the  moulding  and 


144  Our  Workshop. 

similar  planes  is  shown  in  fig.  76.  The  back  of 
the  stock  is  grasped  near  the  top  by  the  right 
hand,  the  thumb  being  towards  the  workman, 
and  all  the  fingers  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
tool.  The  front  end  of  the  plane  is  kept  well 
down  on  the  work  by  the  left  thumb  which  is 
placed  on  the  upper  side  of  the  stock.  The  fore- 


finger,,  which  is  bent  at  the  second  joint,  is 
pressed  against  the  side  of  the  stock  to  keep  the 
fence  in  contact  with  the  work  ;  but  the  remain- 
ing fingers  are  closed  in  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
The  plane  must  be  lifted  off  the  work  at  the  ter- 
mination of  the  strokes,  as  the  iron  will  lose  its 
keenness  if  drawn  backwards  over  the  work, 
besides  subjecting  the  sole  to  useless  wear. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  145 

The  manner  of  handling  the  plough  is  re- 
presented in  fig.  77.  This  instrument  is  perhaps 
rather  difficult  to  hold,  owing  to  its  peculiar  con- 
struction and  overhanging  parts.  The  right 
hand  is  applied  to  the  back  in  a  way  somewhat 
similar  to  that  shown  in  fig.  76,  but  the  fingers 
are  placed  on  the  back  stem  to  help  to  balance  the 
weight  of  the  fence.  The  thumb  of  the  left  hand 
is  hooked  over  the  forward  stem  :  the  fore  and 
remaining  fingers  are  then  placed  under  its  pro- 
jecting end,  and  are  allowed  to  rest  on  the  fence 
to  assist  in  keeping  it  against  the  work. 

Our  readers,  unless  they  purpose  practising  on 
a  scale  almost  as  extensive  as  that  of  a  pro- 
fessional joiner  will  not  require  one-half  of  the 
additional  planes  which  we  have  lately  brought 
under  their  notice.  The  amateur  will  probably 
be  able  to  execute  any  groove-work  he  is  likely 
to  attempt  by  the  aid  of  the  plough,  which  is 
more  generally  useful  than  the  fillister,  if  a 
choice  be  made  between  them.  A  good  plough 
with  eight  irons  may  be  purchased  for  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  shillings,  and  a  moving  fil- 
lister for  about  eight  shillings.  Skew  and 
square  rebate-planes,  with  irons  from  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  to  two  inches  wide,  will 
cost  about  three  shillings  each. 

If  any  of  the  simple  grooving-planes,  or  the 
L 


146  Our  Workshop. 

hollows  and  rounds  and  moulding  planes  be  sub- 
sequently required,  they  may  perhaps  be  pro- 
cured ;  but  unless  the  orders  with  which  "  Our 
Workshop  "  is  favoured  be  very  extensive,  this 
additional  stock  in  trade  will  be  unnecessary. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  147 


CHAPTER  VII. 

MORTISING   AND   TENONING. 

HE  ordinary  and  simplest  form  of  mortise 
|  and  tenon  is  shown  in  fig.  79.  We  have 
|  already  observed  that  the  tenon  must 
not  be  less  than  one-third  the  thickness 
of  the  scantling,  or  it  will  be  weaker  than  the 
shoulders  or  sides  of  the  mortise.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  tenon  must  never  exceed  one-half  the 
thickness  of  the  "  stuff,"  and  this  proportion 
can  be  allowed  only  when  the  mortise  occurs  at 
some  distance  from  the  ends  of  the  material,  the 
risk  of  splitting  the  work  being  then  greatly 
diminished. 

When  the  pieces  to  be  united  are  of  consider- 
able thickness,  or  the  scantling  is  square  in 
section,  it  is  better  to  make  two  small  tenons 
instead  of  one  of  large  size.  This  subdivision 
imparts  much  more  stiffness  to  the  framing,  and 
enables  it  to  withstand  a  raching  or  side  strain 
much  longer  than  it  could  otherwise  have  done. 
The  extremity  on  which  the  tenons  are  to  be 
formed,  must  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts, 
and  the  central  and  two  exterior  portions,  or 
L  2 


148  Our  Workshop. 

cheeks,  removed  by  the  tenon  saw,,  thus  leaving 
two  tenons  and  three  shoulders,  as  in  fig.  78. 
The  outside  "  cheeks  "  can  be  separated  entirely 
by  the  saw,  which  may  be  applied  with  equal 
facility  to  both  shoulders  and  sides,  but  the 
shoulder  or  root  of  the  central  portion  must  be 
wrought  by  a  mortising  chisel,  or  a  hole  may  be 
bored,  the  diameter  of  which  must  not,  however, 


Fig.  78. 

exceed  the  thickness  of  the  wood  to  be  removed, 
and  if  the  hole  be  made  a  trifle  above  the  line 
of  the  shoulders,  the  square  corners  may  after- 
wards be  cut  with  a  chisel. 

The  practical  application  of  mortising  and 
tenoning  may  be  better  understood  if  we  con- 
sider the  construction  of  a  simple  rectangular 
frame  such  as  fig.  79.  The  long  pieces,  A  B,  C  D, 
are  called  the  styles,  and  the  cross  bars,  A  C,B  D, 
which  are  usually  shorter,  are  named  the  rails. 
No  invariable  rule  can  be  given  for  the  propor- 
tions of  the  several  parts  of  the  framing,  as  its 
strength  must  be  regulated  in  a  great  measure 
by  the  character  of  the  work,  and  the  purpose 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


149 


for  which  it  is  intended.  In  joining,  the  styles 
and  rails  vary  from  about  one-fourth  to  one-fifth 
of  the  internal  width  of  the  frame;  but  in  cabinet- 
making,  less  strength  being  required,  one-sixth 


— 


Fig.  79. 


is  the  most  usual  proportion.  The  thickness  of 
a  style  varies  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  its 
width,  but  the  joiner  is  guided  more  by  the  size 
of  the  work,  the  nature,  of  the  material,  and  his 
own  experience,  than  by  any  actual  rule. 


150  Our  Workshop. 

Having  determined  upon  the  size  of  the  frame 
and  the  material  of  which  to  construct  it,  the 
styles  and  rails  must  next  be  cut  out  with  the 
hand-saw,  being  careful  to  allow  something  for 
planing  up,  and  also  a  little  excess  in  the  length 
of  the  pieces  for  trimming  off  after  the  frame  is 
united.  If  the  frame  be  small,  the  "stuff" 
should  be  planed  up  as  one  piece,  and  afterwards 
cut  into  the  required  lengths.  Sometimes  it  may 
be  difficult  to  procure  wood  long  enough  to  do 
this ;  but  perhaps  two  pieces  can  be  found  from 
which  either  a  pair  of  styles  or  a  pair  of  rails  may 
be  cut,  or  one  style  and  rail  from  each  piece. 
Before  cutting  off  the  lengths,  one  side  of  the 
stuff  must  be  marked  by  a  pencil  from  end  to 
end,  to  enable  us  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other 
after  the  wood  has  been  divided. 

The  internal  dimensions  of  the  frame  must  be 
marked  on  each  of  the  four  portions,  the  length 
on  the  styles  and  the  width  on  the  rails.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  to  make  the  lines  correspond 
exactly  on  the  respective  pieces,  as  any  want  of 
truth  will  mislead  us  when  cutting  the  mortises 
and  tenons ;  the  frame,  also,  when  put  together, 
would  be  crooked.  This  contingency  may  be 
avoided  by  laying  the  styles  side  by  side  on  the 
bench,  and  scribing  the  lines  across  them  both 
with  a  square  and  scriber.  The  lines  should  be 
equidistant  from  the  ends  of  the  styles,  as  both 


Carpentry  and  Joinery* 


151 


extremities  require  a  little  allowance  for  finally 
trimming  off.  The  length,  of  the  frame  being 
thus  marked  on  one  side,  the  styles  must  be 
taken  separately,  and  marked  on  the  remaining 
sides,  or  all  round,  by  the  aid  of  the  square  and 


rJ--_- 

7f 

s 

\ 

r 


Fig.  80. 


scriber.     The  rails  must  be  subjected  to  similar 
treatment. 

The  mortises  and  tenons  must  now  be  marked 
out  and  worked.  Fig.  80  is  an  enlarged  view  of 
the  mortise  and  tenon,  the  former  being  made  in 
the  style  S,  while  the  latter  is  formed  on  the 'jail 


152  Our  Workshop. 

R.  The  thickness  of  the  tenon  should  not  ex- 
ceed one-third  of  that  of  the  rail ;  but  a  little 
latitude  may  be  allowed  in  this,  and  the  mortise- 
chisel  which  is  nearest  to  the  required  thickness 
may  be  selected. 

The  mortise-gauge  (fig.  81)  is  provided  with 
two  points,  which  may  be  adjusted  to  the 
required  width  of  the  mortise.  The  chisel 
chosen  for  the  work  may  be  lightly  stuck  into 


Fig.  81. 

the  edges  of  the  styles  and  rails  to  mark  its  own 
thickness,  to  which  the  gauge  can  be  then  readily 
set.  The  common  marking-gauge  may  be  em- 
ployed, but  it  must  be  adjusted  twice,  as  the 
gauge  must  be  applied  only  to  the  "  face  "  side 
of  the  work,  which  was  marked  previously  to 
cutting  off  the  four  pieces.  These  lines,  shown 
at  ?,  7,  fig.  80,  must  be  marked  on  both  the 
edges  and  across  the  ends  of  the  four  members  of 
the  frame. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  153 

It  is  evident  that  the  tenons  must  be  narrower 
than  the  rails,  otherwise  they  would  break 
through  the  extremities  of  the  styles  when  the 
ends  of  the  latter  are  trimmed  ofl'.  By  inspect- 
ing fig.  80  it  will  be  seen  that  the  tenon  t  is  cut 
back  from  both  the  edges  of  the  rail  K,  but  much 
more  from  the  outer  than  from  the  inner  edge. 
It  is  not,  however,  cut  off  close  to  the  shoulder 
on  the  outer  edge,  but  is  allowed  to  stand  up 
about  half  an  inch,  as  shown  at  S.  The  amount, 
however,  is  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  work  or 
some  peculiarity  in  it. 

The  tenon  is  not  necessarily  cut  back  from  the 
inside,  unless  a  groove  for  a  panel  is  made  in  the 
inner  edges  of  the  styles  and  rails.  In  this  case 
the  inner  edge  of  the  tenon  is  made  level  with 
the  bottom  of  the  groove,  the  depth  of  which 
latter  may  also  determine  the  projection  of  the 
part  S  from  the  shoulder. 

If  the  frame  is  not  to  be  fitted  with  a  panel, 
the  groove  will  probably  not  be  required,  and 
the  -inner  edges  of  the  tenons  may  be  made  level 
with  the  inside  edges  of  the  rails.  The  lines 
which  were  scribed  on  the  styles  to  indicate  the 
internal  length  of  the  frame  will  also  serve  to 
mark  the  inner  ends  of  the  mortises,  the  outer 
ends  being  marked  by  similar  lines,  which  are 
made  as  much  beyond  the  first  as  the  width  of 
the  intended  tenons.  If  a  groove  be  necessary, 


154  Our  Workshop. 

tlae  lines  determining  the  length  of  the  styles 
will  not  be  correct  for  the  inner  ends  of  the  mor- 
tise ;  consequently  new  lines  must  be  marked  in 
advance,  the  intervening  space  being  equal  to 
the  depth  of  the  groove. 

The  frame  represented  in  figs.  79  and  80  is 
furnished  with  a  panel,  and  the  groove  to  receive 
it  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  g,  g,  in  fig.  79. 
The  width  of  the  the  tenons,  which  varies  from 
about  one-half  to  two-thirds  that  of  the  rail, 
being  determined  upon,  it  is  now  necessary  to 
mark  out  the  mortises  in  the  manner  already 
described,  and  at  once  proceed  to  form  these 
parts  and  put  the  frame  together. 

In  joining,  the  styles  being  generally  light, 
they  are  placed  side  by  side  on  the  bench,  with 
their  inner  edges  upwards,  and  are  held  by  the 
holdfast;  but  if  the  work  be  heavy,  as  in  car- 
pentry, it  must  be  laid  on  the  mortising-stool, 
and  the  operator  sits  upon  it.  If  the  mortise  be 
unusually  wide  or  deep,  the  greater  portion  of 
the  wood  may  be  removed  by  a  gouge-bit  or 
centre-bit,  and  the  mortise  is  afterwards  finished 
by  an  ordinary  chisel. 

The  chisel  is  held  in  the  left,  and  a  mallet  of 
proportionate  size  in  the  right  hand.  The  chisel 
is  mostly  held  with  its  face  towards  the  work- 
man, and  the  first  incision  is  made  about  one- 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  155 

sixth  from  the  end  of  the  mortise,  care  being 
taken  to  keep  the  edge  of  the  tool  exactly 
square,  and  within  the  gauge  lines.  After  a  few 
moderate  blows  of  the  mallet,  the  chisel  should 
be  shaken  backwards  and  forwards  to  liberate  it, 
and  another  cut  is  then  made  a  little  in  advance 
of  the  .first,  the  chisel  being  slightly  inclined 
instead  of  perpendicular.  If  the  inclination 
be  sufficient  the  second  cut  will  join  the  first 
at  the  bottom,  and  by  thrusting  the  handle  of 
the  chisel  from  him,  the  workman  is  enabled  to 
prise  up  and  remove  the  small  wedge-shaped 
core,  which  is  the  result  of  the  two  cuts.  The 
chamfer,  or  bevil  of  the  chisel,  is  used  as  the 
fulcrum,  and  it  acts  against  the  solid  wood  behind 
it.  When  cutting  the  ends  of  the  mortise,  the 
chisel  must  be  held  perpendicularly,  and  the 
handle  is  moved  towards  the  centre  of  the  mor- 
tise, to  displace  the  chips,  the  edge  of  the  tool 
being  the  fulcrum  in  this  case.  When  prising 
up  the  chips  the  chisel  must  never  be  allowed  to 
press  against  the  angles  or  edges  of  the  mortise, 
or  they  will  thereby  be  bruised  and  disfigured. 

Having  cut  the  mortise  about  half-way  through, 
the  style  must  be  turned  over  and  finished  from 
the  opposite  side.  Provided  the  chisel  is  kept 
parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  work  and  strictly 
within  the  gauge  lines,  no  great  difficulty  will  be 


156  Our  Workshop. 

experienced  in  cutting  the  mortise  true.  If  the 
excavations  do  not  exactly  meet,  in  consequence 
of  the  chisel  going  astray,  the  irregularities  must 
be  cut  away  by  a  firmer-chisel.  A  good  work- 
man will  "  drive  "  a  mortise  so  accurately  as  to 
render  any  subsequent  correction  unnecessary. 

The  ends  of  the  mortise  are  bevilled  from  the 
outer  edge  to  the  centre,  to  make  room  for  the 
wedges  by  which  the  tenon  will  be  fixed  in  the 
mortise. 

Having  driven  all  the  mortises,  the  tenons 
must  be  marked  from  them  and  cut  out.  If 
proper  care  has  been  bestowed  in  cutting  the 
mortises,  the  gauge  lines  will  be  still  visible, 
and  it  would  be  only  necessary  to  cut  the  tenons 
to  the  lines  which  have  already  been  gauged  on 
the  rails,  to  ensure  a  good  fit.  As  a  precautionary 
measure,  however,  and  one  which  the  amateur 
ought  never  to  neglect,  the  styles  and  rails 
should  be  allowed  to  lie  on  the  bench,  their 
"face"  .sides  upwards,  and  the  ends  of  the  rails 
must  be  placed  in  contact  with  the  inner  edges 
of  the  styles,  and  the  tenons  marked  from  their 
corresponding  mortises.  The  pieces  'should  be 
numbered  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  marked, 
to  avoid  misplacement  when  fitting  the  frame  to- 
gether. If  the  original  gauge  lines  on  the  rails 
be  found  to  tally  with  the  mortises,  the  work  is 
accurate,  and  we  may  proceed  to  cut  the  tenons  ; 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  157 

but  if  there  be  any  discrepancy,  new  lines  must 
be  gauged,  and  distinguished  by  short  pencil- 
marks,  as  the  false  lines  might  lead  us  astray. 
The  lines  which  were  marked  on  the  rails  to  in- 
dicate the  internal  width  of  the  frame  are  also 
correct  for  the  shoulders  of  the  tenons. 

One  of  the  rails  must  now  be  fixed  perpendicu- 
larly in  the  screw-chops,  the  shoulders  of  the 
intended  tenon  being  just  above  the  surface  of 
the  bench.  Either  the  tenon  or  the  sash-saw 
may  be  used  to  cut  down  the  sides  of  the  tenon, 
and  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the 
instrument  accurately  to  the  gauge  lines,  which 
must  not  be  obliterated,  but  should  be  visible  to 
the  last.  Having  cut  down  both  sides  of  the 
tenon,  the  rail  must  be  removed  from  the  chops 
and  laid  on  the  bench,  and  the  transverses,  or 
shoulder- cuts,  must  be  made  by  either  the  dove- 
tail or  the  carcass  saw.  It  is  immaterial  whether 
the  sides  or  shoulders  be  first  wrought,  but  the 
saw  must  never  be  permitted  to  penetrate  beyond 
the  lines,  or  the  strength  of  the  tenon  will  be 
much  impaired. 

If  the  tenon  has  been  properly  cut  by  the  saw, 
it  will  require  no  further  finish,  and  the  chisel 
should  be  used  only  to  clean  out  the  angles  be- 
tween the  shoulders  and  the  sides,  and  perhaps 
to  reduce  the  thickness  and  width  of  the  extre- 
mity of  the  tenon,  to  enable  it  to  enter  the 


158  Our  Workshop. 

mortise.  If,  however,  a  few  light  blows  of  the 
mallet  fail  to  send  the  tenon  home,  it  must  be 
withdrawn,  and  those  parts  which  show  signs 
.of  having  bound,  must  be  pared  down  by  an 
ordinary  chisel,  the  flat  side  of  which  is  applied 
to  the  work.  Very  little  should  be  removed 
at  a  time,  and  only  in  exceedingly  thin  shavings. 
The  parts  must  be  again  put  together,  and  if 
still  too  tight,  again  separated  and  "  eased."  The 
grooves  for  the  panel  must  be  ploughed  in  the 
inner  edges  of  the  styles  and  rails,  after  the 
mortises  and  tenons  are  finished. 

The  necessity  for  true  and  careful  workmanship 
will  be  fully  admitted  when  the  four  members  of 
the  frame  are  attached.  If  either  a  tenon  or  a 
mortise  be,  even  in  the  slightest  degree,  out  of 
square,  the  frame  will  be  crooked,  and  the  fault 
can  be  rectified  only  by  paring  a  little  off  the  op- 
posite sides  of  the  faulty  tenon,  close  to  the 
shoulder  on  one  side,  and  near  the  extremity  on 
the  other.  If  the  parts  be  much  out  of  truth, 
this  treatment  will  fail  to  effect  a  cure,  as  the 
tenon  would  be  made  so  loose  in  the  mortise 
that  the  joint  would  be  practically  worthless. 

If  the  work  prove  satisfactory,  the  wedges  for 
fixing  the  tenons  may  now  be  cut  out  and  tempo- 
rarily fitted.  The  wedges  must  be  bevilled  on 
one  side  only,  and  to  the  same  angle  as  the  outer 
ends  of  the  mortises. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  159 

The  frame  must  be  taken  to  pieces  to  enable 
us  to  insert  the  panel  and  apply  glue  to  the 
joints.  The  glue,  which  should  be  thin  and 
thoroughly  hot,  must,  with  a  chip  or  thin  strip  of 
wood,  be  smeared  over  the  sides  and  ends  of  the 
mortises  in  one  of  the  styles.  The  two  corre- 
sponding tenons  must  be  brushed  over  with  glue, 
inserted  in  their  respective  mortises,  and  forced 
home  to  the  shoulders.  The  wedges  are  next 
covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  glue,  introduced,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  projecting  tenons,  and  driven 
in  moderately  tight.  We  must  caution  our 
readers  against  using  violence  when  putting  their 
work  together,  as  a  few  impatient  blows  may 
seriously  injure,  or  perhaps  totally  destroy,  the 
labour  of  several  days.  The  wedges  must  be 
driven  equally,  or  the  tenons  will  be  subjected  to 
a  severe  side  strain.  If  the  external  wedges 
(w'  w* ,  fig.  79)  be  even  slightly  overdriven,  the 
end  of  the  mortises  will  probably  give  way  when 
the  extremities  of  the  styles  are  trimmed  off. 

Having  successfully  glued  and  wedged  up  both 
the  rails  into  the  first  style,  the  panel  which  has 
been  previously  prepared  must  be  inserted  or 
planted  by  sliding  it  along  the  groove  in  the 
rails.  The  mortises  in  the  second  style  and  their 
corresponding  tenons  must  be  coated  with  glue ; 
the  style  is  then  driven  home  by  a  mallet  and 
wedged  up.  The  mallet  must  be  applied  just 


160  Our  Workshop. 

within  the  mortises,  and  the  blows  should  be  dis- 
tributed evenly  to  both  ends,  in  order  to  drive 
the  style  straight.  If  the  material  of  which  the 
frame  is  constructed  be  soft  and  easily  bruised, 
a  small  -piece  of  wood  should  be  interposed,  to 
shield  it  from  the  strokes  of  the  mallet.  The 
ordinary  hammer  may  then  be  used  without  fear 
of  damaging  the  work. 

When  the  glue  has  become  thoroughly  hard, 
the  extremities  of  the  tenons  and  styles  must  be 
trimmed  off,  as  shown  at  G  D,  fig.  79.  This 
should  be  done  by  one  of  the  back  saws,  care 
being  taken  not  to  cut  either  the  style  or  rails, 
which  would  be  thereby  much  disfigured. 

In  joinery,  the  panel  P,  fig.  82,  fits  into 
grooves  in  the  styles  and  rails,  as  shown  at  S ; 

8      m  S' 


Fig.  82. 

but  in  cabinet-making  a  rebate  is  generally  made, 
as  seen  at  S',  and  the  panel  is  secured  by  slips  of 
wood  which  are  glued  on  to  the  frame  after  it  is 
finished.  In  joinery,  a  moulding  (m)  is  glued  to 
the  inner  edges  of  the  frame,  to  impart  a  finished 
appearance  to  the  work.  The  moulding  must 
not  be  glued  to  the  panel,  as  the  shrinking  of  the 
latter  will  separate  the  former  from  the  frame. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  161 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  panel 
flush  with  one  side  of  the  frame,  as  in  fig.  83. 
The  styles  and  rails  are  grooved  in  the  usual 
manner ;  but  the  panel  P  is  made  thicker,  and  a 
rebate  is  formed  around  its  edges,  in  order  to 
make  a  tongue  to  fit  into  the  groove. 


Fig.  8H. 

Occasionally,  neither  grooves  nor  rebates  are 
employed ;  and  the  panel  is  retained  by  the  slip 
on  one  side,  and  by  a  light  moulding  on  the 
other.  In  this  case  the  moulding  must  be  re- 
bated on  one  edge,  so  that  it  may  rest  partly  on 
the  surface  of  the  styles  and  rails  and  partly 
against  their  inner  edges.  This  plan  is  generally 
adopted  only  in  cabinet  work  when  the  inner 
edges  of  the  rails  are  curved  instead  of  straight. 
The  curved  mouldings  cannot  be  wrought  by  a 
plane,  therefore  they  must  be  carved  by  hand. 

Sometimes  in  cabinet-making  and  light  joinery, 
the  mortises  do  not  extend  quite  through  the 
styles,  and  as  the  tenons  cannot  then  be  wedged 
up,  the  strength  of  the  work  in  a  great  measure 
depends  upon  the  accuracy  and  close-fitting  of 
the  parts. 

\Vhen  the  rails  are  so  wide  that  the  width  of 
the  tenons  would  exceed  four  times  their  thick- 

M 


162 


Our  Workshop. 


ness,  it  is  advisable  to  divide  the  tenons  into  two 
or  more  parts,  as  shown  in  fig.  84,  which,  re- 
presents a  wide  rail  having  two  tenons  with  three 
shoulders,  which  latter  enter  the  groove  in  the 
styles.  This  kind  of  rail  is  unsuitable  for  the 
ends  of  a  frame,  the  tenons  being  too  near  its 
edges;  but  it  is  used  intermediately  when  the 


Fig.  84. 

styles  are  long,  and  require  additional  support, 
or  when  several  panels  are  to  be  introduced. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  space  C  D  between  the 
tenons  should  not  be  less  than  one-third  the 
width  of  the  original  single  tenon  A  B,  and  the 
shoulders,  S,  S,  vary  from  one-third  to  one-half 
the  width  of  one  of  the  tenons. 

In  fig.  85  is  shown  the  formation  of  the  tenons 
and  mortises  for  a  wide  external  rail.  The  con- 
struction is  very  similar  to  that  represented  in 
fig.  80,  and  the  only  important  difference  is  the 
subdivision  of  the  tenon  into  two  parts  the 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  163 

object  being  to  strengthen  the  style  by  leaving 
a  central  division  in  the  mortise. 

Another  method  of  mortising  and  tenoning  is 
represented  in  fig.    86.     A  single  tenon,  about 


Fig.  85. 

two-thirds  the  width  of  the  rail,  is  formed  at  the 
extremity  of  the  latter,  and  two  feather- slips 
(f>  f)  are  1°^  int°  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon. 
Corresponding  grooves  (g,  cj],  to  receive  the 
feathers  are  ploughed  in  the  styles  on  each  side 
of  the  mortise. 

M  2 


164 


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Before  using  the  plough,  the  inner  ends  (i,  i) 
of  the  grooves  must  be  cut  with  a  small  mortise- 

o 

chisel  of  the  same  width  as  the  plough-iron,  to 
enable  the  chips  to  detach  themselves.  A  hole 
of  the  same  diameter  as  the  width  of  the  intended 


Fig.  86. 

groove  may  be  first  made ;  the  chisel  can  then 
be  used  with  greater  facility. 

The  feathers  are  useful,  inasmuch  as  they 
impart  greater  steadiness  to  the  frame  by 
checking  any  tendency  of  the  shoulders  to  rock 
on  the  style. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


165 


CHAPTER     VIII. 

DOVETAILING. 

BOX  which  is  either  simply  glued  or 
nailed  together,  can  be  considered  only 
as  a  very  rough  specimen  of  joinery.  If 
however,,  the  sides  be  dovetailed  together, 
and  the  work  be  neatly  executed,  it  will  present 
a  finished  and  artistic  appearance. 

Small  boxes  and  similar  light  works  which  do 
not  require  much  strength  are  frequently  mitred 


and  keyed  :  this  mode  of  attachment  is  shown  in 
fig.  87.  The  extremities  of  the  end  and  side 
pieces  of  the  box  are  mitred  or  planed  to  an 


166 


Our  Workshop. 


angle  of  45  degrees  on  the  shooting-board  (fig. 
22,  page  49).  If  this  be  properly  done,  the 
ends  will  form  angles  of  90  degrees  with  the 
sides,  and  the  work  will  be  truly  square.  The 
four  pieces  must  be  glued  together  in  the  or- 
dinary manner,  and  when  the  glue  is  quite  hard, 
several  cuts,  inclining  alternately  a  few  degrees 
upwards  and  downwards,  must  be  made  by  a 
back  saw  across  each  of  the  corners  of  the  box ; 


small  pieces  of  veneer  or  other  thin  wood,  K  K, 
called  keys,  must  then  be  glued  and  pressed  into 
the  saw  kerfs.  This  joint  is  very  easily  made, 
and  is  stronger  than  many  people  imagine.  It 
often  proves  a  useful  substitute  for  the  dovetail, 
especially  in  light  articles,  such  as  work-boxes, 
&c.,  which  are  usually  veneered. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


167 


The  simplest  form  of  dovetail  attachment  is 
shown  complete  in  No.  88.  In  fig.  89  the  two 
pieces  which  respectively  represent  the  side  and 
end  of  a  box  are  detached,  in  order  to  exhibit 
the  formation  of  the  joint. 

The  four  pieces  which  are  to  form  the  sides 
and  ends  of  the  box  must  be  cut  out  a  trifle 
longer  than  they  will  ultimately  be  required,  to 


allow  for  trimming  off  after  the  work  is  put 
together.  The  end  pieces  must  be  as  long  or 
wide  as  the  external  width  of  the  box,  in  order 
that  the  dovetail  pins  which  are  to  be  made  on 
them  may  penetrate  the  sides. 

The  internal  length  and  width  of  the  box  must 
be  marked  on  the  sides  and  ends  respectively, 
care  being  taken  to  make  the  lines  equi-distant 
from  the  extremities  of  the  "  stuff. "  The 


168  Our  Workshop. 

marking-gauge  may  be  set  to  one  of  the  lines, 
*$nd  the  four  pieces  can  then  be  gauged  at  each 
end  and  on  both  sides,  or  the  square  and  scriber 
may  be  employed.  These  lines,  which  also  de- 
termine the  bottoms  of  the  pins  and  dovetails, 
are  seen  at  cj,  g,  fig.  89. 

Sometimes  the  pins  on  the  piece  P  are  the 
same  size  as  the  dovetails  on  D,  which  latter  oc- 
cupy the  spaces  between  the  pins ;  but  in  joinery 
and  cabinet-work  the  pins  are  made  only  one- 
fourth  or  one-fifth  the  size  of  the  dovetails.  The 
strength  of  the  work  is  thus  diminished,  but 
greater  neatness  is  secured,  as  less  of  the  cross- 
grain  of  the  end  pieces  is  seen  on  the  sides  of 
the  box,  which  are  generally  more  exposed  to 
view  than  the  ends. 

The  pins  must  be  marked  by  a  pencil  on  the 
two  end  pieces  of  a  box,  care  being  taken  to 
have  equal  spaces  between  them.  A  practised 
workman  can  set  out  the  pins  unaided  by 
either  rule  or  compasses ;  but  the  amateur 
would  be  unwise,  while  yet  inexperienced,  to 
work  without  their  assistance.  The  pins  should 
be  marked  not  only  on  the  extremities,  but 
also  on  the  sides  of  the  end  pieces,  to 
afford  some  guide  in  sawing  the  sides  of  the 
pins  straight.  The  pins  must  be  about  as  wide 
again  on  the  inner  as  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
box,  and  the  two  external  pins  should  be  at  least 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  169 

twice  as  large  as  the  others.  In  fig.  89  the  dove- 
tails, d,  d,  are  external,  consequently  all  the  pin$ 
are  of  uniform  size. 

Having  set  out  the  pins  at  both  extremities  of 
the  end  pieces,  one  of  these  latter  must  be  fixed 
perpendicularly  in  the  chops  of  the  bench.  Both 
sides  of  each  of  the  pins  must  be  very  carefully 
sawn  down  to  the  guage  line  g,  cj,  by  the  dove- 
tail saw.  The  lines  representing  the  pins  should 
almost  be  left  standing  in  their  favour,  the  waste 
of  the  saw  being  taken  from  the  spaces.  If  the 
material  be  thick  and  the  spaces  wide,  the  wood 
between  the  pins  may  be  cut  out  by  the  turning  or 
frame-saw,  fig.  47 ;  the  bottoms  and  the  angles 
at  the  roots  of  the  pins  can  afterwards  be  pared 
out  by  the  firmer-chisel. 

In  light  joinery  or  cabinet-work,  however,  the 
sides  of  the  pins  are  always  cut  by  the  dovetail 
saw,  and  the  wood  between  them  removed  by 
the  chisel.  To  accomplish  this,  the  end  must  be 
removed  from  the  chops  and  laid  on  the  bench, 
and,  if  necessary,  fixed  by  the  holdfast.  The 
chisel  must  be  sufficiently  narrow  to  pass  easily 
between  the  pins,  and  it  should  be  applied  to  the 
work  about  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  outside  the 
gauge-line.  The  tool  is  driven  into  the  wood  by 
a  few  blows  of  a  light  mallet,  and  after  taking 
several  slanting  cuts,  the  work  is  turned  over 
and  completed  from  the  opposite  side. 


170  Our  Workshop. 

The  bottoms  must  next  be  finished,  the  gauge- 
lines  being  very  cautiously  approached.  In  taking 
the  final  cuts,  the  chisel  must  be  allowed  slightly 
to  overhang  the  ends  of  the  pins,  in  order  to 
undercut  the  bottoms,  to  make  them  hollow  or 
lower  in  the  centre,  instead  of  quite  flat.  As  the 
cuts  are  taken  half  through  from  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  work,  and  meet  in  the  centre,  there 
is  no  difficulty  in  making  the  middle  lower,  and 
close  contact  of  the  edges  with  the  side  pieces 
will  be  insured. 

Having  finished  all  the  pins,  the  dovetail  must 
next  be  marked  from  tliem  and  wrought.  One  of 
the  sides  is  laid  on  the  bench,  aud  upon  it  one  of 
the  ends  is  placed  in  its  intended  position.  The 
extremities  of  the  pins  rest  on  the  surface  of  the 
side  piece,  and  their  wide  faces  must  be  set  upon 
the  gauge-line  which  represents  the  bottoms  of 
the  dovetails. 

The  end  being  properly  adjusted  in  every 
direction,  a  scriber  is  passed  along  the  sloping 
sides  of  the  pins,  in  order  to  mark  their  exact 
shape  on  the  side  piece.  The  spaces  just  marked 
for  the  reception  of  the  pins  are  generally  too 
contracted  to  be  cut  out  by  the  turning  saw,  and 
are  therefore  usually  wrought  by  a  dovetail  saw, 
and  an  ordinary  chisel  applied  in  the  manner 
already  described. 

If  the  spaces  between  the  dovetails  be  carefully 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  171 

removed  without  entirely  obliterating  the  marks 
which  were  made  by  the  scriber,  the  pins  and 
dovetails  will  be  a  little  too  large,  and  by  slightly 
compressing  each  other  when  the  work  is  united, 
a  close  and  firm  joint  is  insured.  Leaving  the 
parts  a  trifle  too  large  will  not  remedy  any  defect 
in  the  workmanship,  and  if  much  be  allowed  for 
compression,  the  wood  will  probably  split  before 
the  pins  are  driven  home. 

The  three  remaining  extremities  or  corners  of 
the  side  pieces  are  marked  from  their  correspond- 
ing pins,  and  wrought  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
first  corner  just  completed. 

When  the  amateur  has  become  tolerably  ex- 
pert he  will  find  it  quite  as  easy  to  follow  some 
established  routine  as  to  conduct  the  work  irre- 
gularly. The  pins,  therefore,  should  be  marked 
out  on  both  the  extremities  of  the  end  pieces, 
and  then  wrought  by  the  saw  and  the  chisel. 
When  using  the  chisel,  one  piece  may  be  laid  on 
the  other,  the  end  of  the  upper  piece  being  set 
back,  so  as  not  to  cover  the  guage-line  of  its 
neighbour ;  both  are  then  fixed  by  the  holdfast. 
The  extremity  of  each  piece  being  towards  the 
workman,  he  can  use  his  chisel  advantageously ; 
when  both  pieces  have  been  cut  half  through, 
they  are  turned  over  and  finished  from  the  other 
side.  The  opposite  extremities  are  then  placed 
in  front,  and  wrought  in  the  same  manner.  All 


172  Our  Workshop. 

the  dovetails  are  next  marked  from  the  pins,  and 
the  ends  and  sides  must  be  numbered  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  scribed.  The  sides  are 
then  fixed  and  wrought  like  the  ends. 

The  pins  and  dovetails  must  not  be  made  with 
any  considerable  angle  or  bevel,  or  the  connec- 
tion will  be  deficient  in  strength.  More  bevel, 
however,  may  be  allowed  if  hard  wood,  such  as 
oak  or  mahogany,  be  employed,  but  in  deal  and 
other  soft  or  brittle  materials,  the  parts  should 
be  only  slightly  bevilled. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  glue  the  box  together. 
One  of  the  ends  must  be  fixed  vertically  in  the 
screw- chops,  the  pins  of  one  extremity  being  a 
little  above  the  level  of  the  bench.  The  pins  and 
bottoms  must  be  sparingly  covered  with  thin  glue; 
the  first  side  is  then  held  horizontally,  and  the 
pins  are  directed  into  their  corresponding  sockets 
between  the  dovetails.  A  small  piece  of  wood 
which  is  smooth  on  the  underside  must  be  laid 
on  the  dovetails,  to  save  them  from  being  bruised 
by  the  hammer  which  is  now  used  to  drive  the 
dovetails  home  to  the  bottoms  or  shoulders  of  the 
pins.  As  the  length  of  the  pins  exceeds  the 
thickness  of  the  side,  the  hammer-block  must  be 
set  back  when  they  become  level  with  the  surface, 
to  allow  .them  to  rise  to  their  full  extent.  The 
first  end  is  now  released,  the  second  being  fixed 
in  its  stead,  and  the  process  just  described  is  re- 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  173 

peated.  Three  sides  of  the  square  having  been 
united,  the  work  must  be  removed  from  the 
chops  and  laid  on  the  bench  preparatory  to 
attaching  the  fourth  side,  which  will  complete 
the  square  and  form  the  carcase. 

The  first  side  is  now  supported  upon  two 
strips  of  wood  of  equal  thickness,  which  are 
placed  one  under  each  extremity,  and  just  within 
the  projecting  ends  of  the  pins,  in  order  to  keep 
them  clear  of  the  bench,  and  afford  the  work  a 
steady  base.  The  pins  corresponding  to  the 
dovetails  of  the  second  side  are  next  glued ;  the 
side  is  carefully  adjusted,  so  that  all  the  pins 
may  fairly  enter  into  their  respective  sockets, 
and  is  then  driven  home.  The  hammer  and 
block  are  used  at  each  end  alternately,  and  at 
short  intervals,  in  order  to  drive  the  side  down 
as  evenly  as  possible. 

Although  this  form  of  dovetail,  if  well  made, 
is  a  neat  and  useful  joint  for  plain  works,  it  is 
not  suitable  for  cabinet-work  and  fancy  articles 
unless  the  end  grain  of  the  pins  and  dovetails  is 
hidden  by  veneer.  Small  boxes,  writing  desks, 
&c.,  are  generally  made  of  mahogany,  rosewood, 
or  some  other  ornamental  wood;  and  as  veneer 
is  not  then  employed,  the  joint  must  be  so 
formed  that  the  end  wood  may  be  concealed. 

The  lap 'dovetail,  which  is  seen  complete  in  fig. 
92,  is  used  for  the  description  of  work  last 


174 


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named.  Fig.  91  represents  the  formation  of  this 
attachment.  The  end  grain  of  the  pins  and 
dovetails  is  effectually  enclosed,  but  a  narrow 
strip  of  the  cross-grain  end  of  the  piece,  P,  is 
observable  at  E  :  this,  however,  is  disguised  by 
rounding  the  corner  after  the  work  is  put  to- 
gether. The  gauge-lines  g,  g,  which  denote  how 


Fig.  90. 

far  the  pins  and  dovetails  must  extend  inwards, 
are  marked  as  in  fig.  89.  It  will  be  seen,  by  in- 
specting fig.  91,  that  neither  the  pins  nor  the 
dovetails  extend  quite  through  the  wood  in 
which  they  are  respectively  formed ;  hence  the 
concealment  of  their  end  grain ;  and  it  is  im- 
material in  which  piece  the  pins  or  the  dovetails 
are  made.  The  depth  of  the  dovetails  is  geiierallly 
about  one-eighth  inch  less  than  the  thickness  of 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


175 


the  piece  containing  them,  and  the  pins  are  of 
corresponding  length.  If  the  ends  of  the  pins 
were  made  level  with  the  end  of  the  piece  P,  in 
which  they  are  cut,  the  pins  would  reach  the 
bottoms  of  the  dovetails  before  the  piece  P  had 
entirely  covered  the  end  wood  of  D,  and  the 
bottoms  of  the  dovetails  would  remain  in  sight. 
A  hollow  angular  corner  would  result,  and  a 


Fig.  91. 

strip  of  wood  called  a  corner  line,  must  be  glued 
into  it  to  finish  the  joint ;  this  is  sometimes 
called  a  secret  dovetail.  In  the  "  lap  dovetail/' 
however,  the  pins  are  set  back  one- eighth  inch 
from  the  end  E,  of  the  side  P,  or  the  amount  the 
dovetails  are  shallower  than  the  thickness  of  the 
piece  D.  By  this  means  the  depth  l}  I,  of  the 


176 


Our  Workshop. 


lap  is  made  to  equal  or  slightly  exceed  tlie  thick- 
ness of  the  piece  D,  consequently  the  end  of  D  is 
covered  by  it,  as  seen  in  fig.  92. 

Sometimes  the  lap  is  not  formed  on  the  piece 
containing  the  pins  as  in  fig.  91,  and  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  pins  are  then  level  or  flush  with 
the  end  E.  In  this  case  the  lap  must  be  worked 
in  the  piece  in  which  the  dovetails  are  cut. 


Fig.  92. 

Before  the  sides  and  ends  are  cut  to  their 
lengths,  the  workman  must  decide  in  which  pair 
he  will  form  the  laps,  as  this  pair  must  be  cut  to 
the  external  dimensions  of  the  work,  but  the 
other  pair  being  placed  between  the  laps,'  the 
thickness  of  the  latter  must  be  deducted. 

The  half -lap  dovetail  is  a  modification  of  the 
last-named,  and  is  much  used  for  the  fronts  of 
drawers.  The  pins  are  cut  in  the  front  piece, 


Carpentry  and  Joinery. 


177 


represented  by  P,  fig.  91,  but  their  extremities 
are  level  with  the  end  E.  The  dovetails  are  cut 
quite  through  the  side  pieces,  which  are  only 
about  half  the  thickness  of  the  front.  If  the 
front  is  to  be  veneered,  the  dovetails  are  made 
as  in  figs.  88  and  89. 

The  mitre  dovetail,  figs.  92  and  93,  is  the  neat- 
est and  most  difficult  to  make  of  the  group.     The 


four  pieces  must  be  cut  to  the  external  dimen- 
sions of  the  work,  and  then  rebated  at  each  end. 
This  rebate  should  be  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
square,  and  similar  to  the  lap  E,  in  the  piece  P, 
fig.  91,  in  which  E  is  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  projects  the  same  amount  beyond  the 

N 


178  Our  Workshop. 

ends  of  the  pins.  After  cutting  and  fitting  the 
pins  and  dovetails,,  the  rebates  or  laps  must  be 
mitred  by  a  rebate  plane.  The  bevel  (fig.  52, 
page  120),,  if  set  to  an  angle  of  45  degrees,,  will 
greatly  facilitate  the  process.  When  finished,  no 
portion  of  the  end  grain  is  seen,  and  the  box  has 
the  appearance  of  being  simply  mitred. 

When  the  pins  and  dovetails  do  not  extend 
quite  through  the  work,  the  saw  can  only  be  ap- 
plied obliquely,  and  not  to  the  full  depth;  the 
work  is  then  completed  by  the  chisel. 

If  the  cover  of  a  box  consist  simply  of  a  flat 
piece,  like  the  bottom,  it  is  apt  to  warp,  and  will 
not  then  fit  closely.  When  the  cover  is  formed 
with  a  dovetailed  rim,  it  has  the  appearance  of  a 
shallow  box  or  tray,  and  the  box  to  which  it  is 
attached  is  said  to  have  a  tea-chest  top.  If  the 
box  and  its  cover  were  made  separately,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  ensure  their  exact  agreement,  and 
the  labour,  of  dovetailing,  &c.,  would  also  be 
increased. 

The  required  truth  may  be  obtained  by  con- 
structing the  box  and  cover  as  one  piece,  and 
dividing  them  afterwards  by  the  saw.  The  four 
pieces,  which  must  be  wide  or  deep  enough  to 
form  the  box  and  its  cover,  are  dovetailed  to- 
gether in  either  of  the  ways  already  described. 
On  adding  the  two  pieces  which  respectively  re- 
present the  top  and  bottom  of  the  box,  the  work 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  179 

resembles  a  square  block,  or  a  cube,  if  all  the 
sides  be  equal.  These  pieces  may  be  simply 
glued  upon  the  edges  of  the  box,  although  the 
neater  and  most  usual  way  is  to  rebate  the  four 
sides  and  the  top  in  order  to  allow  the  latter  to 
sink,  so  that  less  than  half  its  actual  thickness  is 
seen.  If  the  box  be  constructed  with  a  mitre 
dovetail,  and  the  top  and  bottom  be  rebated  and 
mitred,  no  end  wood  will  be  visible,  as  all  the 
joints  occur  on  the  angles  of  the  work.  This  is 
the  neatest  method  of  attaching  the  six  pieces, 
but  as  the  workmanship  must  be  exceedingly 
good,  it  is  seldom  employed,  and  then  only  in 
works  of  the  best  quality. 

Whenever  the  box  and  cover  are  made  to- 
gether, one  of  the  dovetail  pins  in  each  of  the 
side  and  end  pieces  must  occur  on  the  line  of  di- 
vision. This  line,  which  represents  the  depth  of 
the  cover,  must  be  gauged  all  round  on  the  out- 
side, and  should  fall  exactly  on  the  centre  of  the 
pins,  which  must  be  at  least  as  large  again  as 
the  others,  so  that  when  cut  in  half  they  may 
equal  them  in  size.  The  joint  pins  and  dovetails 
must  be  pared  away  to  a  mitre,  for  if  they  be  left 
square  like  the  others,  rectangular  lines  will  be 
seen  on  cutting  open  the  carcase — that  is,  se- 
parating the  cover  and  box  by  the  carcase  saw. 


N  2 


180  Our  Workshop . 


CHAPTER     IX. 

VENEERING. 

readers  already  know  that  veneering  is 
the  art  of  glueing*  a  very  thin  sheet  of 

• 

valuable  wood  upon  a  thick  piece  of  a 
cheaper  description. 

Veneer  is  laid  either  with  a  caul  or  the  veneer- 
ing hammer.  The  former  is  always  required  for 
curved  work,  of  which  it  must  be  an  exact 
counterpart ;  it  may  also,  when  flat,  be  employed 
for  plain  surfaces  ;  the  veneering  hammer,  how- 
ever, can  be  used  only  for  flat  work. 

The  surface  of  the  work,  and  both  sides  of  the 
veneer,  must  be  roughened  all  over  by  the  tooth- 
ing-plane, which  is  fitted  with  a  perpendicular 
iron,  the  edge  of  which  is  serrated  like  an  ex- 
ceedingly fine  saw.  The  small  grooves  made  by 
this  tool  are  technically  called  keys  or  teetli,  and 
afford  the  glue  a  much  firmer  hold  than  it  could 
otherwise  possess. 

If  the  veneer  is  to  be  laid  by  a  caul,  this  latter 
must  now  be  prepared,  and  should  be  fully  as 
large  as  the  work,  and  several  pair  of  screw- 
clamps  must  also  be  selected.  Each  pair  of 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  181 

clamps  consists  of  two  strong  bars  of  wood,  con- 
nected at  the  ends  by  screw-bolts  and  nuts.  The 
inner  edges  of  the  bars  should  be  slightly  convex, 
or  rounding  in  the  direction  of  their  length,  so 
that  they  may  touch  the  middle  of  the  caul  and 
under  side  of  the  work  earlier  than  the  outer 
edges  or  margin.  The  bars  must  be  adjusted  to 
the  proper  distance  apart,  so  that  the  caul  and 
work  may  just  slip  between  them,  for  if  too 
much  be  left  to  screw  up  after  laying  the  veneer, 
the  glue  will  lose  its  fluidity  before  the  pressure 
is  applied,  and  the  work  may  be  unsound  in 
consequence. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  lay  a  piece  of  veneer 
with  a  flat  caul.  The  caul  must  be  placed  near 
the  fire  so  that  it  may  be  made  thoroughly  hot, 
care,  however,  being  taken  not  to  scorch  it ;  and 
the  sides  should  be  frequently  changed  to  equalize 
the  influence  of  the  heat,  which  may  otherwise 
distort  the  surface.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
work,  and  both  sides  of  the  veneer  having  been 
toothed,  they  are  next  made  very  warm,  and  the 
surface  of  the  work  is  brushed  over  quickly  with 
very  thin  glue  or  size ;  the  veneer  is  then  glued 
and  laid  on  the  work,  being  hastily  rubbed  down 
by  the  outstretched  hands  of  two  or  three  work- 
men ;  the  hot  caul  is  then  placed  on  the  veneer, 
and  the  clamps  are  slipped  on  and  screwed  down 
at  intervals  of  two  or  three  inches.  The  heat  of 


182  Our  Workshop. 

the  caul  quickly  penetrates  the  thin  veneer,, 
making  the  glue  exceedingly  fluid,  and  the  pres- 
sure supplied  by  the  clamps  soon  expels  the 
greater  portion  of  it,  and  causes  the  veneer  to 
bed  very  closely  to  the  work.  The  clamps  must 
be  screwed  down  as  evenly  as  possible,  so  that 
the  surplus  glue  may  escape  freely  from  the 
centre  of  the  work.  This  may  generally  be  en- 
sured by  screwing  down  both  ends  of  the  clamps 
equally,,  so  that  the  bars,  which  are  slightly 
rounding  or  convex,  may  touch  the  centre  of  the 
work  first,  gradually  yielding  as  the  pressure 
increases,  until  they  bear  throughout. 

The  same  method  is  pursued  when  laying 
veneer  upon  curved  works,  but  the  face  of  the 
caul,  as  before  observed,  must  be  an  exact 
counterpart  of  the  surface  to  be  veneered.  The 
clamps  must  not  be  removed  until  the  work  is 
quite  cold ;  or  for  about  twelve  hours.  The  glue 
is  not  considered  to  be  thoroughly  hard  under 
two  or  three  days,  and  if  it  be  disturbed  before 
it  is  quite  dry,  the  soundness  of  the  work  is  en- 
dangered. Sometimes  the  work  is  laid  on  the 
floor,  the  veneer  downwards,  and  is  then  covered 
with  shavings,  which  exclude  the  air,  and  cause 
the  drying  to  proceed  more  gradually. 

The  amateur  will  seldom,  if  ever,  have  occasion 
to  veneer  curved  works,  and  will  not,  therefore, 
require  apparatus  such  as  clamps  and  cauls.  The 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  183 

veneering  hammer  is  the  only  tool  required  for 
laying  veneer  on  flat  surfaces.  This  hammer, 
which  has  a  very  wide  and  thin  pane,  may  be 
purchased  for  about  two  shillings  or  half  a  crown. 
Sometimes  the  workman  prefers  to  make  the 
hammer  himself.  As  this  is  not  difficult  of  ac- 
complishment,, some  of  our  readers  may  desire  to 
do  the  same.  The  hammer  head  in  this  case  is 
made  of  a  block  of  hard  wood,  about  three  or 
four  inches  square,  and  a  round  handle  is  inserted 
in  the  centre.  One  of  the  sides  is  next  sawn 
down  about  an  inch,  and  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  or 
steel,  say  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  is  tightly 
fitted  into  the  kerf,  and  should  project  about  one 
quarter  of  an  inch.  The  edge  of  the  sheet  metal 
or  pane  must  be  rounded  with  a  file  and  made 
quite  smooth,  so  that  it  may  not  injure  the  sur- 
face of  the  veneer.  The  opposite  side  to  that  in 
which  the  pane  is  fitted  should  be  rounded  so 
that  it  may  not  hurt  the  workman' s  hand,  as  he 
will  be  obliged  to  press  heavily  on  the  head  to 
make  the  hammer  act  efficiently. 

Everything  being  in  readiness,  the  surface  of 
the  work,  which  has  been  made  as  hot  as  pru- 
dence will  permit,  is  hastily  covered  with  very 
fluid  glue,  which  should  also  be  as  hot  as  the 
water  bath  can  make  it.  The  veneer  must  next 
be  brushed  over  with  glue  on  the  side  which  is 
to  be  laid  on  the  work,  and  just  before  laying,  it 


184  Our  Workshop. 

should  be  held  before  a  fire  of  shavings  to  render 
the  glue  perfectly  fluid,  as  it  soon  loses  its  heat, 
however  expeditiously  the  operation  may  be  per- 
formed. After  turning  the  veneer  down  upon 
the  work,  it  must  be  rubbed  over  with  the  out- 
stretched hands  of  two  or  three  people,  the  pres- 
sure being  first  applied  at  the  centre  and  gra- 
dually extended  towards  the  margin.  The  upper 
side  of  the  veneer  is  now  washed  over  with  hot 
size,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  impart- 
ing fresh  heat  to  the  rapidly- cooling  glue,  and 
lessening  the  friction  of  the  veneering  hammer, 
which  we  are  now  about  to  use. 

One  man  would  scarcely  be  able  to  lay  a  piece 
of  veneer  satisfactorily ;  and  as  the  soundness  of 
the  work  in  a  great  measure  depends  upon  the 
despatch  with  which  it  is  conducted,  as  many 
hands  as  can  be  spared,  or  as  can  conveniently 
assist,  generally  lend  their  aid. 

The  pane  of  the  hammer  is  applied  at  the. 
middle  of  the  work  ;  the  operator  bears  heavily  on 
the  head,  and  slowly  wriggles  the  tool  by  its 
handle  towards  the  margin.  He  again  returns 
to  the  centre,  and  works  down  a  line  a  little  to 
one  side  of  the  former  course,  and  so  on  re- 
peatedly, until  the  entire  surface  has  been 
traversed. 

During  the  operation  the  surface  of  the  veneer 
must  be  frequently  washed  over  with  hot  size,  to 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  185 

lessen  the  friction  of  the  hammer,  an.d  to  supply 
fresh  heat  to  the  glue.  Inattention  to  this  pre- 
caution would  probably  result  in  the  destruction 
of  the  veneer.  The  pressure  applied  to  the 
narrow  edge  of  the  pane  is  apt  to  cause  it  to  tear 
the  veneer  if  the  latter  become  nearly  dry.  The 
heat  and  moisture  supplied  by  the  size  tend  to 
make  the  veneer  pliable,,  and  greatly  facilitate 
the  escape  of  the  glue,  which  accumulates  in 
advance  of  the  pane  in  its  progress  from  the 
centre  of  the  work  to  the  margin,  where  it  is 
discharged.  The  solidity  of  the  work  may 
generally  be  tested  by  tapping  the  surface  all 
over  with  the  back  of  the  hammer ;  and  if  some 
of  the  blows  produce  a  dull  hollow  sound,  the 
veneer  is  not  in  actual  contact  at  those  parts 
with  the  foundation  or  work.  The  pane  must 
again  be  applied  to  the  faulty  spots,  and  if  the 
glue  be  too  far  set  to  yield,  the  inner  vessel  of 
the  glue-pot  may  be  placed  thereon,  to  furnish 
the  necessary  warmth.  The  difficulty  of  the 
process  materially  increases  with  the  magnitude 
of  the  work,  and  soundness  is  more  uncertain 
than  when  cauls  and  clamps  are  employed.  The 
hammer  is  very  useful  for  laying  narrow  strips 
or  for  small  works  that  can  be  quickly  completed, 
and  in  such  cases  is  generally  used,  although  the 
before-named  apparatus  may  be  at  hand. 

If  veneered  works  when  in  use  be  placed  too 


186  Our  Workshop. 

close  to  the  fire,  the  veneer  is  apt  to  become 
blistered,  and  it  is  impossible  to  rectify  the 
mischief  except  by  re-laying.  To  remove  the 
veneer,  the  surface  must  be  washed  with  boiling 
water,  and  then  wiped  with  a  coarse  cloth,  to 
remove  any  dirt  or  grease  that  may  adhere  to  it. 
The  article  must  next  be  placed  with  the  veneer 
towards  the  fire,  or  a  hot  caul  may  be  placed 
upon  it.  When  thoroughly  hot,  the  surface 
must  be  rubbed  over  with  linseed  oil,  and  again 
exposed  to  the  fire,  or  supplied  with  a  fresh  caul. 
The  oil  will  soon  sink  through  the  veneer,  and 
soften  the  glue,  when  the  edges  of  the  veneer 
may  be  gently  raised  by  a  chisel,  being  very 
careful  not  to  split  it.  The  heat  and  application 
of  oil  must  be  continued  until  the  veneer  is  en- 
tirely separated  from  the  foundation. 

Before  attempting  to  re-lay  the  veneer,  all  the 
old  glue  must  be  scraped,  off,  after  which  either 
of  the  processes  we  have  described  may  be 
.adopted. 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  187 


CHAPTER    X.      - 

VARNISHING   AND    PEENCH    POLISHING. 

E  beauty  of  the  handsomely-figured 
woods  is  greatly  enhanced  by  polishing, 
and  the  surface  of  the  work  is  also  less 
likely  to  be  affected  by  moisture.  Pine 
and  other  soft  woods  which  are  frequently  stained 
in  imitation  of  the  more  showy  varieties,  are 
generally  varnished.  Carved  works  which  are  at 
all  intricate  are  almost  invariably  varnished. 

The  surface  of  the  work  must  be  very  carefully 
finished,  previous  to  the  application  of  either 
varnish  or  French  polish.  Clean  and  straight- 
grained  woods  can  be  planed  so  smooth  that  the 
application  of  fine  glass-paper  will  impart  the 
requisite  finish.  Some  of  the  ornamental  woods 
cannot  be  smoothly  planed,  owing  to  their  cross- 
grained  nature,  the  surface  must  therefore  be 
completed  by  scraping  with  a  steel  scraper,  and 
rubbing  it  with  glass-paper.  Any  imperfections 
in  the  surface,  such  as  cavities  left  by  knots 
which  have  fallen  out,  or  slight  flaws,  must  be 
filled  with  stopping,  which  must  not,  however, 


188  Our    Workshop. 

contain  any  oil  or  grease ;  some  of  the  gums,  or 
wax,  coloured  to  resemble  the  work,  should  be 
employed. 

The  varnish  may  be  placed  in  an  ordinary  pre- 
serve-jar, across  the  mouth  of  which  a  string  or 
wire  should  be  stretched,  for  wiping  the  brush 
upon  every  time  it  is  dipped,  as  much  waste  is 
occasioned  by  pressing  the  brush  against  the 
edge  of  the  jar,  when  we  wish  to  remove  the 
surplus  varnish.  Sufficient  varnish  should  be 
poured  into  the  jar  to  cover  the  hairs  of  the 
brush,  which  will  thereby  be  kept  soft  and  in 
good  working  order.  When  not  in  use,  the  jar 
must  be  closely  covered  to  hinder  the  evaporation 
of  the  spirit,  otherwise  the  varnish  will  become 
too  thick ;  and  if  dust  be  not  carefully  excluded, 
the  varnish  will  be  spoilt.  If  the  varnish  become 
too  thick,  its  fluidity  may  be  restored  by  adding 
a  small  quantity  of  spirits  of  wine.  Turpentine 
and  oil  varnishes  must  be  thinned  by  their  re- 
spective solvents. 

Spirit  varnishes  are  generally  applied  with  a 
camePs  hair  brush,  which  must  of  course  vary  in 
size  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  work. 
When  the  surfaces  are  extensive,  large  flat 
cainePs-hair  brushes  are  used;  but  they  are  so 
thin  in  proportion  to  their  width,  that  they 
cannot  hold  much  varnish,  and  require  to  be 
frequently  re-filled  when  working  on  a  large 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  189 

surface,  whereby  the  difficulty  of  laying  a  smooth, 
coat  is  greatly  increased.  It  is  advisable  under 
these  circumstances  to  dilute  the  varnish  with  a 
little  spirits  of  wine,  which  will  make  it  flow 
more  readily,  and  prevent  it  drying  too  rapidly. 
Turpentine  and'  oil  varnishes  are  applied  with 
brushes  formed  of  very  fine  and  soft  bristles,  and 
sometimes  ordinary  oil  colour-brushes  are  em- 
ployed ;  but  these  latter  are  generally  too  harsh, 
and  the  adhesion  of  the  varnish  is  apt  to  draw 
out  the  hairs,  which  are  not  so  well  secured  as  in 
proper  varnishing  brushes. 

Whether  the  varnishes  be  spirit,  turpentine, 
or  oil,  they  must  be  so  fluid,  that  they  will 
spread  or  flow  evenly  over  the  entire  surface. 
It  is  far  better  to  apply  several  thin  coats  than 
to  lay  on  one  or  two  of  greater  thickness ;  and  in 
the  latter  case  it  would  be  almost,  if  not  quite, 
impossible  to  obtain  a  smooth,  regular  surface. 

The  varnish  is  apt  to  accumulate  at  the  edges 
of  the  work,  and  to  lie  too  thickly  in  any  angles 
or  mouldings  with  which  it  may  be  ornamented. 
To  avoid  this,  the  varnish  must  be  first  applied 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  edge,  which  may  be 
subsequently  coated  when  the  brush  is  nearly 
empty.  The  brush  must  be  used  from  end  to 
end  of  the  work,  the  strokes  being  rapid  and 
light,  at  the  same  time  taking  care  to  work  out 
any  air-bubbles  that  may  form.  If  the  surface  be 


190  Our  Workshop. 

small,  very  little  difficulty  will  be  experienced, 
as  tlie  brush,  can  be  passed  over  it  at  one  stroke, 
and  if  this  stroke  appear  imperfect,  a  second 
stroke  may  be  made  at  right  angles  to  the  first, 
and,  if  necessary,  a  third  may  be  made  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  first.  This  must  be 
quickly  done,  otherwise  the  varnish  will  begin  to 
set,  and  streaky  lines  will  be  left  on  the  surface. 
If  any  of  the  hairs  of  the  brush  become  detached, 
and  stick  on  the  varnished  surface,  they  must  be 
immediately  removed  before  the  varnish  hardens. 
If  this  be  neglected  until  the  varnish  is  dry,  the 
hairs  or  other  extraneous  matter  must  be  care- 
fully picked  out  with  the  point  of  a  pen-knife, 
and  the  surface  must  then  be  rubbed  level  with 
fine  glass-paper  prior  to  the  next  coat. 

Varnishing  should  be  conducted  in  a  warm 
and  thoroughly  dry  atmosphere,  and  the  work 
must  be  allowed  to  acquire  the  same  temperature 
as  the  apartment  before  commencing  operations. 
This  is  specially  important  when  using  spirit 
varnishes,  which  are  exceedingly  susceptible  to 
moisture,  and  cold  currents  of  air  or  draughts, 
which  will  chill  the  varnish  and  deprive  it  of  its 
brightness.  The  presence  of  invisible  moisture 
or  vapour  in  the  atmosphere  is  soon  made  ap- 
parent by  the  milky,  opaque  appearance  it  im- 
parts to  the  varnish.  The  brightness  of  the 
chilled  coat  may  sometimes  be  restored  by 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  191 

quickly  and  lightly  applying  another  coat  before 
the  former  becomes  set,  having  taken  necessary 
precautions  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the 
previous  failure.  The  newly- varnished  ^urface 
should  then  be  held  at  a  moderate  distance  from 
the  fire,  in  order  to  liquify  the  chilled  surface  and 
restore  its  brilliancy.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  place  the  work  too  close  to  the  fire,  as  the 
varnish  is  very  easily  blistered :  should  this 
occur,  the  only  remedy  is  to  clean  off  the  varnish 
with  glass-paper,  and  recommence  the  operation. 

The  difficulty  of  laying  an  even  coat  of  Tarnish 
is  greatly  increased  when  tBe  surface  to  be 
covered  is  extensive.  It  is  generally  advisable 
to  use  the  brush  from  one  edge  to  the  other  in 
the  narrowest  direction.  If  the  surface  be  too 
wide  to  admit  of  this  course,  the  varnish  must  be 
laid  in  separate  portions,  thinning  off  the  edges 
of  each  portion  with  the  brush,  in  order  that  they 
may  overlap  each  other,  and  so  disguise  the 
joint. 

Each  coat  of  varnish  must  be  allowed  to  be- 
come thoroughly  hard  before  applying  the  next, 
as  the  latest  coat  shields  the  one  below  it  from 
the  air,  and  prevents  it  drying  properly.  The 
successive  coats  must  be  laid  as  expeditiously  as 
possible,  as  the  fresh  varnish  is  very  liable  to 
soften  that  which  has  been  previously  applied,  if 
the  brush  be  passed  frequently  over  it,  and  to 


192  Our  Workshop. 

occasion  an  irregular  chilled  appearance  in  the 
new  surface.  It  may  be  observed,  that  if  a  sur- 
face present  any  inequalities,  it  must  be  rubbed 
over  w^h  fine  glass-paper  before  laying  the  next 
coat.  As  a  general  rule,  spirit  varnishes  require 
from  three  to  four  hours  for  drying  between  each 
coat ;  turpentine  varnishes  about  ten  or  twelve 
hours ;  and  oil  varnishes  at  least  twenty-four 
hours.  The  time  allowed  for  drying  must  in 
some  measure  be  regulated  by  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  quantity  of  spirit,  turpen- 
tine, or  oil  contained  in  the  varnish.  The  hard- 
ness of  the  varnish  may  be  tested  by  pressing 
the  knuckles  on  the  surface ;  if  no  mark  be  left, 
the  varnish  is  quite  dry  and  in  a  fit  state  to  re- 
ceive a  fresh  coat. 

If  the  work  is  required  to  be  very  highly 
finished,  the  varnish  may  be  polished  when  the 
last  coat  has  become  thoroughly  hard.  It  is 
presumed  that  the  surface  is  free  from  brush- 
marks,  or  other  blemishes,  before  any  attempt  is 
made  at  polishing,  which  otherwise  would  be  so 
much  labour  wasted. 

Mix  about  two  ounces  of  finely-powdered 
tripoli  with  wrater  to  the  consistency  of  thick 
cream ;  apply  a  small  quantity  to  a  piece  of  fine 
flannel  which  has  been  folded  four  times,  and  rub 
the  surface  of  the  work  with  moderate  pressure. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  surface  wet 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  193 

during  the  process.  The  progress  of  the  polish- 
ing may  always  be  ascertained  by  wiping  a  small 
portion  of  the  work  with  a  sponge,  and  when  the 
surface  has  an  even  gloss,  the  tripoli  may  be 
wiped  off,  and  the  work  dried  with  a  clean  wash- 
leather.  A  little  fine  tallow  or  mutton- suet  must 
now  be  taken  on  the  finger,  with  which  the 
surface  must  be  touched  in  several  places.  The 
surface  is  then  rubbed  with  the  fingers  or  the 
palm  of  the  hand;  clean  wheat-flour  is  next 
dusted  over  the  work,  and  is  also  rubbed  with  the 
fingers  ;  after  the  removal  of  the  flour,  the  surface 
should  be  gently  rubbed  with  an  old  silk  hand- 
kerchief, which  will  impart  a  brilliant  lustre  to 
the  varnish, 

French  polish  is  a  varnish  or  lacker,  which  is 
not,  however,  applied  with  a  brush,  like  ordinary 
varnish,  but  is  distributed  with  a  soft  rubber. 
The  rubber  sometimes  consists  simply  of  a  piece 
of  cloth,  or  list,  or  of  a  small  ball  of  cotton  wool 
or  wadding  inclosed  in  a  piece  of  linen  rag.  The 
cloth  rubbers  are  formed  by  coiling  a  narrow 
strip  of  cloth  from  which  the  selvedge  or  list  has 
been  torn  to  a  diameter  of  two  or  three  inches, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  work  in  hand.  The 
soft  edge,  which  is  left  by  tearing  off  the  list  must 
be  moistened  with  the  polish  and  applied  to  the 
work,  or,  if  preferred,  a  linen  rag  may  be  placed 
over  it,  which  can  be  renewed  at  any  time. 

o 


194  Our  Workshop. 

French  polish  is  made  in  many  ways,  but  the 
simplest  and  perhaps  the  best  is  formed  by  dis- 
solving two  pounds  of  shellac  in  one  gallon  of 
spirits  of  wine  without  heat.  The  amateur  can 
easily  make  his  own  polish,  and  in  any  convenient 
quantities ;  say  two  ounces  of  shellac  in  half  a 
pint  of  spirits  of  wine  as  a  minimum.  If  by 
evaporation  the  polish  become  too  thick,  fresh 
spirit  can  be  added,  but  if  made  too  thin  in  the 
first  instance,  delay  may  be  occasioned  by  having 
to  dissolve  additional  lac  before  the  polish  can  be 
used.  The  proportions  already  recommended 
will  be  found  satisfactory. 

The  surface  to  be  polished  must  be  rubbed 
perfectly  smooth  with  the  finest  glass-paper, 
finishing  off  with  that  which  is  nearly  worn  out. 
The  dust  must  be  wiped  off  with  a  clean  cloth, 
and  the  surface  should  be  carefully  examined, 
and  any  scratches  removed. 

If  the  rubber  is  to  be  made  of  wadding,  the 
latter  must  be  pulled  to  pieces,  and  all  the  hard 
knotty  portions  rejected.  A  rubber  of  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  will  be  large  enough 
for  a  surface  of  three  or  four  square  feet  in  extent. 
The  wadding  should  be  thoroughly  saturated 
with  polish,  squeezed  moderately  dry,  and  placed 
in  the  centre  of  a  single  thickness  of  soft  linen 
rag,  which  is  then  gathered  up  behind  and 
tied.  A  few  drops  of  linseed  oil  are  placed 


Carpentry  and  Joinery.  195 

on   the    face    of  the   rubber,  which  is  then  fit 
for  use. 

The  rubber  may  now  be  applied  to,  and  moved 
over,  the  surface  of  the  work  with  circular  strokes 
of  uniform  size,  the  motion  being  continuous  and 
the  pressure  very  slight.  The  position  of  the 
strokes  should  be  frequently  changed  in  order  to 
distribute  the  lacker  evenly,  otherwise  some 
portions  of  the  surface  will  be  too  thickly  coated, 
whilst  other  parts  are  neglected.  The  rubber 
must  be  kept  in  motion  until  the  entire  surface 
has  received  a  uniform  coat  of  lacker,  occasion- 
ally squeezing  the  rubber  gently  between  the 
fingers,  to  cause  the  polish  to  exude  from  it. 
When  it  is  wished  to  remove  the  rubber,  it 
must  not  be  lifted  vertically,  but  should  be  swept 
off  at  the  margin  of  the  work,  during  one  of  the 
circular  strokes,  and  it  must  never  ba  allowed  to 
remain  stationary,  as  it  would  adhere  to  the 
polish  and  cause  a  blemish. 

The  polish  must  be  allowed  to  become 
thoroughly  hard,  and  should  then  be  rubbed 
over  with  a  worn  piece  of  glass-paper,  to  remove 
any  irregularities  in  the  lacker  or  rising  of  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  Several  coats  must  be  ap- 
plied, and  treated  in  every  way  like  the  first. 

Directly  the  lacker  becomes  hardened  on  the 
rag  of  the  rubber  a  new  piece  must  be  substi- 
tuted, as  the  hard  lacker  is  liable  to  scratch  the 


196  Our  Workshop. 

tender  coat  of  polish.  This  opportunity  may  be 
taken  to  re-saturate  the  wadding,  which  must, 
however,  be  squeezed  as  dry  as  on  the  first 
occasion. 

When  the  grain  of  the  wood  appears  to  be  well 
filled  with  the  lacker,  and  the  surface  even  and 
tolerably  bright,  the  cloudy  marks  occasioned  by 
the  oil  which  was  put  on  the  rubber  may  be 
removed,  by  taking  a  clean  rubber  inclosed  in  a 
fresh  piece  of  soft  linen  rag,  a  few  drops  of  spirits 
of  wine  being  placed  on  the  rubber  instead  of 
lacker.  The  work  must  be  rubbed  very  lightly, 
beginning  with  circular  strokes,  and  as  the  surface 
becomes  dry  it  may  be  finished  with  straight 
strokes  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  passing  the 
rubber  quite  off  the  end  of  the  work.  The 
polishing  may  be  considered  complete  when  the 
rubber  is  quite  dry. 

After  the  lapse  of  a  few  days,  the  polish  will 
be  partially  absorbed  by  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
and  it  will  be  necessary  to  apply  another  thin 
coat  of  lacker.  The  surface  must  be  lightly  rubbed 
with  nearly  worn-out  glass-paper,  in  order  that 
the  last  coat  of  lacker  may  be  laid  under  the 
most  favourable  circumstances.  This  last,  when 
quite  hard,  will  require,  like  the  one  preceding, 
to  be  finished  with  a  clean  rubber  and  spirits  of 
wine. 

THE    END. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

RENEWALS  ONLY— TEL.  NO.  642-3405 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


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LD  21A-40m-2,'69 
(J6057slOJ476  —  A-32 

General  Library 
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Berkeley 

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